The Rise of Nation-States: German and Italian Unification (1848–1871)
The Unification of Germany and Italy (1848–1871)
The primary causes driving the unification movements were:
- Ideologies: Liberalism and Nationalism.
- Economic Development: The development of Capitalism.
The Unification of Italy (The Risorgimento)
Piedmont-Sardinia was the most industrialized state, led by Victor Emmanuel II, a constitutional monarch since 1848. The unification process unfolded through several key stages:
- 1859: A war between Austria and France occurred. Piedmont supported France, receiving Lombardy in exchange.
- 1860: Plebiscites were called by popular demand. Parma, Modena, and Tuscany joined Piedmont and Lombardy. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was conquered by Garibaldi's forces, which were then incorporated.
- 1861: The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed, with its capital in Turin. The new state operated under a constitutional monarchy. Its goal was to conquer Venice and the Papal States (EEPP).
- 1866: During the Austro-Prussian War, Italy allied with Prussia and received the Kingdom of Venetia.
- 1870: During the Franco-Prussian War, the Kingdom of Italy seized the opportunity to conquer the Papal States.
- 1871: The capital officially moved to Rome.
The Unification of Germany
- 1834: The Zollverein (Customs Union) was created, uniting German states economically, excluding Austria.
- 1848: The need for political unification arose at the Frankfurt Congress (or Parliament). Two main ideologies emerged:
- Greater Germany (Großdeutschland): Including Austria.
- Lesser Germany (Kleindeutschland): Excluding Austria, led by Prussia.
- 1864: The Second Schleswig War over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark.
- 1866: The Austro-Prussian War (Seven Weeks' War). Prussia defeated Austria, leading to the creation of the North German Confederation, grouping all German states north of the Main River under Prussian leadership.
- 1870–1871: The Franco-Prussian War. Prussia won, annexing the South German states (except Austria), as well as Alsace and Lorraine from France.
- 1871: The Second German Reich was proclaimed, with Kaiser Wilhelm I of Germany as Emperor.
The Revolutions of 1848
The revolutions began in France, driven by economic and political crises.
France: From Monarchy to Empire
- February Insurrection: The bourgeoisie revolted, leading to the abdication of King Louis Philippe and the proclamation of the Second Republic.
- Reforms: Universal suffrage was introduced, slavery was abolished, and labor improvements were made in the colonies.
- June Insurrection: A second uprising occurred against the Republican regime.
- 1852: Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte proclaimed himself Emperor, establishing the Second Empire.
The Austrian Empire
The Austrian Empire experienced revolutions characterized by both liberal and national demands:
Liberal Character (Vienna)
- The monarch was challenged in Vienna, demanding a constitution.
- The revolution resulted in the abdication of Emperor Ferdinand I, who was replaced by Francis Joseph.
- A granted charter was issued in 1848.
National Character
Revolts against Francis Joseph occurred in various regions seeking autonomy or independence:
- Hungary
- Poland
- Bohemia
- Croatia
Germany (1848)
In 1848, the Frankfurt Parliament was established to address German unification. The debate centered on the two positions (Greater and Lesser Germany). Lesser Germany was chosen, and the crown was offered to the King of Prussia, who ultimately rejected it.
Italy (1848)
Italy saw both national and liberal movements:
- Liberal Movements: Took place in Piedmont, the Papal States (EEPP), and Naples.
- National Insurrections: Small uprisings occurred in Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and Lombardy-Venetia, seeking control from the ruling powers.
Mazzini initiated an uprising aimed at ending the absolute monarchy and challenging the Pope's temporal power, but this effort was defeated in 1849 and failed.