Restoration, Liberal Revolutions and 19th Century Unifications

Restoration

Following the defeat of Napoleon, the victorious powers met at the Congress of Vienna in 1814. The primary objective was the restoration of absolutism. These decisions were reinforced by the Holy Alliance in 1815, which established that if a revolution occurred in one country, others would intervene to support the monarch. By 1815, liberalism and nationalism emerged as opposing forces.

• Nationalism: A political ideology advocating for the right of a people to self-determination and sovereignty. A nation is defined by shared cultural ties.
• Liberalism: A political system that prioritizes the individual in society. The individual is a free citizen, and the collective body of citizens constitutes the nation, which holds sovereignty. Decisions are made through a Parliament.

Liberal Revolutions

• 1820: Military-led liberal uprisings attempted to end absolutism through armed struggle. These movements challenged the Holy Alliance, though they largely failed.
• Greece: Achieved independence in 1829.

1830: These uprisings gained significant support and succeeded in replacing absolutism with constitutional political systems, granting power to the bourgeoisie.

• France: In July 1830, Charles X was overthrown, establishing a liberal monarchy under King Louis Philippe d'Orléans.
• Belgium: Established a liberal, independent system separate from the Netherlands.

1848: Known as the "Spring of Nations," this period saw the rebirth of many nations following the decline of absolutism. New political ideals emerged, including universal suffrage, popular sovereignty, and the rise of the proletariat. Most of these revolutions were peaceful, and their proposals consolidated throughout the 19th century.

• France: Louis Philippe d'Orléans was removed from power, and a republic with universal suffrage was proclaimed.

Unifications

Several states, notably Germany and Italy, sought to unify their fragmented territories.

• Italy: Previously divided into six states. Austria annexed Lombardy and Veneto, while the House of Savoy ruled Piedmont. Cavour initiated a war against Austria in 1859, and Garibaldi overthrew monarchs in Northern and Southern Italy. In 1861, the Italian Parliament proclaimed Victor Emmanuel II as King. By 1866, the Austrians left Veneto, and in 1870, the Papal States were annexed. Italy became a unified country with Rome as its capital.
• Germany: Divided into 36 states, the primary challenge was the rivalry between Prussia and Austria. The rise of nationalism was evident during the 1848 revolutions. Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck directed several successful wars: against Austria in 1866 and France in 1870. Following these victories, the German Empire (Reich) was proclaimed, with William I as Kaiser.