The Reign of Isabella II and Spain's 19th Century Transformation

The Reign of Isabella II (1833–1868)

The reign of Isabella II spanned the years 1833 to 1868, characterized by distinct political periods:

Political Periods of Isabella II's Reign

• The Moderate Decade (1844–1854): Governed under the new Constitution of 1845.
• The Progressive Biennium (1854–1856): A new constitution was drafted in 1856, but it was never published or enacted.
• The Collapse of the Monarchy (1856–1868): These years saw an alternation in power between the Moderate Liberals and the Liberal Union.

The Revolutionary Sexennium (1868–1874)

In 1866, Democrats, Liberals, and Progressives signed the Pact of Ostend. The revolution triumphed in 1868, leading to the Queen's exile. Between 1869 and 1874, the state experienced two distinct forms of government:

Key Phases of the Sexennium

• The Democratic Monarchy: Spaniards chose Amadeus of Savoy as king. His reign was marked by fighting against the opposition of Republicans and supporters of the Bourbons.
• The First Republic: During this period, the Constitution of 1873 was drafted but was not enacted. The Republic also had to face another Carlist War.

Population Dynamics in 19th Century Spain

• The growth of the Spanish population during the nineteenth century was moderate and lower than that of other European countries.
• Population distribution was characterized by the contrast between the coastal regions (the periphery) and the center of the peninsula, alongside significant contrasts between rural and urban areas.

Agriculture and Economic Transformations

Agricultural Reforms and Limited Improvements

• The abolition of the feudal system was decreed in 1811 during the Cortes of Cádiz.
• Secularization (Desamortización) consisted of the sale of disentailed assets previously tied to institutions such as the nobility, the clergy, or municipalities.
• Agricultural improvements were limited, primarily consisting of an increase in acreage under cultivation rather than technological advancement.

Industry and Delayed Industrialization

Spain experienced the beginnings of the First Industrial Revolution, though its development was delayed compared to other European nations.

Causes of Industrial Delay in Spain

• The political situation was unstable, and democratic growth was insufficient.
• Economically, the transformations in agriculture absorbed much of the available bourgeois capital.
• Socially, there was a limited entrepreneurial bourgeoisie willing to invest significantly in industry and business.

Key Industrial Sectors

• The Cotton Textile Industry, concentrated primarily in Catalonia.
• The Steel Sector, which emerged in Andalusia, Asturias, and the Basque Country.

Tertiary Economic Activities

• Transport progressed significantly thanks to the construction of roads and the railway network.
• Domestic trade was limited by the low purchasing power of the general population.
• Finance and capitalism were driven forward by overall economic development.

The Structure of the New Class Society

The 19th century saw the consolidation of a new class-based society:

• The Upper Class (Bourgeoisie): Composed of the old nobility and the wealthy gentry.
• The Middle Class: Included middle landowners and various urban professional groups.
• The Lower Class: Consisted primarily of smallholders in the countryside and the growing urban working class.

Industrial Conflict and Worker Grievances

Laborers and industrial workers faced severe conditions, leading to conflict:

• Agricultural laborers suffered from low wages and seasonal unemployment.
• Industrial workers endured long working hours, extremely low wages, limited insurance coverage, and the widespread exploitation of women and children.