Political and Economic Evolution of Late Medieval Spain

Political Institutions in the Late Middle Ages

During the 14th and 15th centuries, the Kingdom of Castile saw a significant strengthening of the monarchy. Beginning with Ferdinand III and Alfonso X, the Crown steadily expanded its authority. Under the Trastámara dynasty, several key institutions were established: the Royal Council, the Chancery Court (which regulated justice), and a formal Finance department. The Royal Court was supported by stewards, the navy, the army, and an organized bureaucracy. Territorial organization was managed through a division into councils, while the Cortes (Courts) represented the nobility, clergy, and commoners.

In the Kingdom of Aragon, power was shared between the King and viceroys. The Cortes upheld the interests of the nobility, clergy, and gentry. Deputations were tasked with controlling royal grants and ensuring compliance with laws through political and fiscal oversight. The Justice of Aragon defended local privileges against the king's authoritarian claims, while City Halls were managed by the king or local assemblies.

Mediterranean Expansion of the Crown of Aragon

The Crown of Aragon signed strategic treaties with Castile and France to facilitate its expansion into the Mediterranean, driven by Catalan trading and shipping interests. This movement sought to counter the Muslim advance in the East, despite objections from rival powers like Venice, Genoa, and the Papacy. Following the conquest of the Balearic Islands, the Crown incorporated Sicily, the Kingdom of Naples, and Sardinia. Aragon also held the duchies of Neopatria and Athens. While the port of Barcelona was historically dominant, Valencia replaced it as the primary commercial hub during the 15th century.

Demographic, Economic, and Political Crises

The late Middle Ages were marked by profound instability across several sectors:

• Demographic Crisis: The Black or Bubonic Plague, a rodent-borne disease, spread throughout the Mediterranean to Castile, the Levant, and the Balearics. Its effects were catastrophic, particularly for lower social classes already suffering from nutritional deficiencies.
• Economic Crisis: An agricultural crisis led to frequent crop failures. The resulting wheat shortages caused price spikes and widespread famine.
• Political Crisis: The drive toward absolute monarchy and the strengthening of royal power met fierce resistance from the nobility and clergy. This tension triggered civil wars in Castile (Pedro I against Henry II), Catalonia, and Navarra.

Atlantic Routes and the Canary Islands

The 15th century was defined by technical and scientific advances, including the development of portolan charts, the caravel, and the use of the compass. These innovations facilitated the conquest of the Canary Islands, which occurred in two distinct phases:

1. First Phase (1402–1474): The conquest of Fuerteventura, Gomera, Lanzarote, and El Hierro, directed by Jean de Béthencourt.
2. Second Phase (1475–1496): The Catholic Monarchs secured Gran Canaria, Tenerife, and La Palma through the system of capitulations.

As the Portuguese began their own expansion into the South Atlantic, they attempted to seize the Canary Islands from Castile. This conflict persisted until it was resolved by the Treaty of Alcaçovas-Toledo during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs.