Philosophical Fundamentals: Methods, Branches, and Historical Periods

Philosophical Methods and Approaches

• Maieutic-Dialectical:

  Origin: 5th–4th century B.C. Representatives: Socrates and Plato. Characteristics: The sole form to find the truth is through dialogue. Strength: A foundational and widely used method.

• Empirical-Rational:

  Origin: 4th century B.C. Representative: Aristotle. Characteristics: Knowledge is received through the senses (empirical) and then mediated by explanatory reason (rational). Strength: Normally used in the sciences.

• Rationalist:

  Origin: 17th century. Representative: Descartes. Characteristics: Primacy of reason, clear thinking, and adherence to a reasonable procedure. Effective: Method utilized in mathematics.

Major Branches of Philosophy

Theoretical Philosophy

• Epistemology: Studies the origin and nature of knowledge.
• Logic: Studies valid reasoning and argumentation.
• Metaphysics: Reflection, especially on the nature of existence and reality.

Practical Philosophy

• Aesthetics: Deals with the problem of art and the concept of beauty.
• Ethics: Concerns how one should behave and moral conduct.
• Political Philosophy: Focuses on the community, the state, and governance.

Historical Periods of Philosophy

• Ancient Philosophy (6th c. B.C. – 4th c. A.D.):

  Key philosophers include Heraclitus, Pythagoras, and Parmenides. Socrates raised moral issues but left no written work. Aristotle, a disciple of Plato. The two main issues treated were appearance and reality.

• Medieval Philosophy (4th – 14th c.):

  Characterized by its subordination to theology. Key philosophers: St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas.

• Modern Philosophy (17th – 18th c.):

  Two main currents:

  • Rationalism: Considers that truths are born from innate knowledge and developed by reason.
  • Empiricism: States that knowledge arises from the senses and experience.
  Philosophers: Locke, Berkeley, and Hume.
• Contemporary Philosophy (19th c. – Present):

  Positivism appeared. Idealism and mathematicians like Bertrand Russell, and Spanish thinkers Miguel de Unamuno and José Ortega y Gasset stood out.

Rationale, Knowledge, and Argumentation

Theoretical Rationale

Statements are sentences that affirm or deny something. Two types of propositions: analytic and synthetic. Beliefs are propositions held to be true. Knowledge is defined as justified true belief. Characteristics of knowledge: it implies conviction, it is true, and it requires justification. Critical thinking is the attitude that analyzes thoughts and beliefs.

Practical Rationale

Consists of seeking and choosing the best actions that allow one to achieve an end or goal. Objective possibilities and constraints are the set determined by numerous factors. Desires are subjective and dependent on autonomy. Goals are the ends that have been set. Means are all actions performed to achieve that purpose. Rational choice is defined as the selection of the most appropriate actions to achieve an end. Related concepts include destructive wishes (e.g., Ulysses and the Sirens), egoism and cooperation, good, and justice.

Arguments

Arguments are the forms in which human rationality is expressed. They are formed by a set of statements whose end is to demonstrate a thesis.

Elements of an Argument:

• Premises: The reasons put forward to support the thesis.
• Conclusion: The statement that is being defended.

Types of Argument:

• Deductive: The conclusion necessarily follows from the premises.
• Inductive: The conclusion follows not necessarily, but probably.
• Argument from Authority: Concluding the truth of a statement simply because it was made by someone of prestige.