Philosophical Foundations: Machiavelli, Aquinas, Galileo, Augustine, Ockham

Niccolò Machiavelli: Political Realism

1. The purpose of utility requires focusing on the real truth, not imaginative representations. (Thesis)
2. Utopian ideals, guided solely by the requirement of good, lead to ruin. (Arguments supporting the thesis)
3. The Prince must learn to be guided by necessity itself, sometimes acting contrary to moral requirements. (Conclusion)

Contextual History (CH)

Centuries XV and XVI (Modern Age). Initiator of a new political theory and the modern concept of Church-State relations. Maintained a critical stance.

Thomas Aquinas: Reason and Revelation

1. The knowledge of God surpasses reason; therefore, for human salvation, theology is necessary in addition to philosophy. (Thesis)
2. To direct our lives toward God, we must know the truth about Him. (Argument based on reason)
3. Relying only on human reason, God's truth would be known by few, and this knowledge would be riddled with errors. (Argument based on reason)
4. For the salvation of all men, divine revelation is needed. (Conclusion)

Contextual History (CH)

Middle Ages, Century XIII (The rise of Scholasticism). Conducted the retrieval and reconciliation of Aristotelianism with Christianity.

Galileo Galilei: Heliocentrism and Conflict

1. Galileo supported the heliocentric model, which went against the geocentric view, leading to attempts to discredit him. (Thesis)
2. Galileo presented reasons and evidence, including arguments concerning terrestrial physics and physical arguments about the sky, challenging Church policy.
3. The inquisitors could not rationally reject Galileo's arguments.
4. The Church rejected Galileo's arguments based solely on divine authority. (Conclusion)

Contextual History (CH)

Modern Age, Centuries XVI and XVII. Protagonist of the Scientific Revolution. Defended the Copernican theory.

Augustine of Hippo: The Just Society

1. A society will be just if its people adhere to the law of God. (Thesis / Definition of a true people)
2. If this type of society is not established, then there is no true "people," and consequently, no legitimate politics. (Logical Consequence)

Contextual History (CH)

He represents the Patristics. His work constitutes the doctrinal basis of Christianity, fighting heresies and developing a unified interpretation of the doctrine.

William of Ockham: Papal Power Limits

1. Ockham questioned the Pope's power to exempt or override the legitimate rights of emperors, kings, and other believers and unbelievers. (Thesis)
2. The legitimate rights of emperors and kings existed prior to the evangelical law (New Testament). (Supporting Cause)
3. If the Pope acts against those legitimate rights, his sentence or action would be void. (Consequence of disrespecting legitimate rights)

Contextual History (CH)

Middle Ages, Scholasticism in crisis, Century XIV. Great controversy between Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor (Bavaria), and Pope John XXII. Ockham sided with the Emperor.