Origins and Early Stages of World War II
Causes and Alliances of World War II
Causes: The primary drivers included Nazi and Fascist ideology, economic rivalry, the 1929 crisis, and ultranationalism. Expansionist policies by Hitler and Mussolini led to the declaration of war. Notably, France occupied the Ruhr in 1923.
Alliances:
- The Soviet Union: Following the Locarno Treaty, the USSR was marginalized but later aligned with Germany.
- Great Britain and Italy: Tensions rose after the conquest of Ethiopia and subsequent League of Nations sanctions.
- Italy and Germany: By 1936, Italy was isolated, and Galeazzo Ciano collaborated with the Nazis during the Spanish Civil War.
- German-USSR Pact: A non-aggression agreement between the two powers.
Axis Expansion and the Road to War
German Expansion
- 1936: Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan (Italy joined one year later).
- 1938: Invasion of Austria (Anschluss) led by Nazi leader Seyss-Inquart following a suspicious referendum.
- 1938: Annexation of the Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia) after the Munich Conference (France, Great Britain, Italy, and Germany), where the democracies yielded.
- 1939: Invasion of Czechoslovakia (which became independent under German tutelage) and Memel (independent since the Treaty of Versailles).
- Reactions: Democracies reacted against Hitler with threats of war; Germany and Italy signed the Pact of Steel.
- 1939: Invasion of Poland following the German-Soviet Pact, which included a secret partition. Ten days later, Great Britain and France declared war on Germany.
Italian and Japanese Expansion
- Italy: 1935 conquest of Ethiopia; 1939 conquest of Albania and the signing of the Pact of Steel.
- Japan: 1931 conquest of Manchuria (established as a satellite state); 1937 further conquests in China, marking the start of the war in Asia and its integration into World War II.
Development of the War: First Stage (1939-1941)
- Poland: Characterized by rapid German expansion.
- The Baltic: An area of vital interest for Hitler. Denmark and Norway were occupied; Sweden remained neutral but was closely monitored by Germany.
- Western Front: Invasion of Belgium and Holland. The Germans entered France, and Marshal Pétain signed the peace treaty in the forest of Compiègne on July 21, 1940. France was divided into two zones: the Nazi-occupied zone (Paris, Central, and Western) and Vichy France under Pétain's control.
- Operation Sealion: An attempt to disable the British RAF through a series of bombings on London and other cities to weaken aviation and lower British morale.
- Mediterranean: Mussolini began operations in Africa and Greece but failed to control the Mediterranean due to British settlements in Gibraltar and Malta.
- Balkans: Hitler attacked Yugoslavia with the help of Croatia, subsequently taking Greece and Crete after Mussolini's failure.