Mastering Reported Speech, Gerunds, and Infinitives

Reported Speech and Backshifting

Reported speech is used to report or repeat what other people have said. To do this effectively, we often use backshifting.

Backshifting occurs when you change the tense in a sentence to reflect that the statement was made in the past.

• Example: "You have to pay back." → She said that you had to pay me back.
• Example: "Can I speak to Roger?" → He asked me if he could speak to Roger.
• Example: "Open your book to page 70." → She told us to open our books.

Understanding Gerunds and Their Functions

A gerund is a verb ending in -ing. It can function in several ways within a sentence:

• As a noun: "I like playing."
• As an adjective: "He is in the playing ground."
• In progressive forms: "He is playing."
• As a subject: "Playing is good for you."

Types of Infinitives in English

There are three primary types of infinitives used in English grammar:

• -ing forms: These can act as infinitives when they serve as the subject of a sentence.
• Bare infinitive: The base form of the verb used without the word "to."
• To-infinitive: The base form of the verb preceded by "to" (e.g., to + verb).

Using Infinitives as Subjects and Objects

• Object example: "I hate to sing."
• Subject example: "To live is to die."

Infinitives After Modals

What do you use after modal verbs? You use a bare infinitive. For example: "You must go."

Verbs Followed by the To-Infinitive

The following verbs are commonly followed by a to-infinitive:

(Can't) afford, agree, aim, appear, arrange, choose, decide, demand, deserve, expect, fail, hope, learn, manage, offer, plan, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, seem, (can't) wait, wish.

• Example: "I can't afford to buy it."

Verbs Requiring an Object

Some verbs are followed by a to-infinitive and always require an object: advise, encourage, force, invite, order, persuade, remind, teach, tell, warn.

• Example: "I am going to teach you to make it."
• Example: "I advise students to make several things."

Verbs with Optional Objects

Some verbs are followed by a to-infinitive and sometimes have an object: ask, expect, help, intend, want, would like, would love, would hate, would prefer.

• Example: "We expect to be late."
• Example: "We would like you to stay longer."

The Use of Make and Let

The verbs make and let are followed by a bare infinitive (without "to") and always require an object.

• Example: "I'll let you decide."
• Example: "She made me use lots of materials."

Verbs Followed by the -ing Form

The following verbs are typically followed by a gerund (-ing form):

Avoid, carry on, consider, delay, dislike, enjoy, feel like, finish, give up, imagine, involve, keep, keep on, (not) mind, miss, practice, put off, recommend, suggest.

• Example: "Avoid making heavy mistakes."
• Example: "I suggest practicing with simple exercises."

Verbs Followed by Either To-Infinitive or -ing

Some verbs can be followed by either a to-infinitive or an -ing form with little to no change in meaning: begin, continue, like, love, prefer, hate, start.

• Example: "He continued talking" OR "He continued to talk."