Major Ethical Frameworks: Kant, Sartre, Habermas, and Rawls
Immanuel Kant's Ethical Theory: Duty and Reason
Kant's ethical theory proposes a framework radically different from all previous explanations. Our behavior should not be based on finding a reward or avoiding punishment, but rather on what reason dictates. Kant argues that our good is found in duty. Duty consists of acting with the will to do what our reason determines we must do.
Kant defends the idea that moral laws indicate how we must behave. These moral norms can be understood as universal, meaning they can be applied to all beings in any circumstance. Kant calls these laws Categorical Imperatives. To evaluate an action, we must consider whether the action itself responds to a categorical imperative.
Kant distinguishes between two types of actions:
- On Duty: If the principle which inspired the action is universal, meaning it is valid for any human being.
- According to Duty: If, while agreeing with the moral law, the action was inspired by a selfish reason.
Jean-Paul Sartre and Existentialist Ethics
Existentialist ethics, championed by philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre, often poses a philosophy that concludes that human life is meaningless until we create meaning. Freedom is not understood as a benefit, but as a conviction and a burden. Existentialist ethics is an ethics of choice and responsibility, based on two principles:
- To choose this or that is to simultaneously give value to what is chosen.
- We choose as good for us what we think is good for everyone.
The main difference from Kant is that existentialism does not always indicate the rational course of action in certain situations; the individual is forced to choose one option, and that choice carries the weight of responsibility.
Dialogical Ethics: Communication and Consensus
Following the disaster of the Second World War and the Holocaust, new ethics based on dialogue and communication emerged. We highlight the philosopher Jürgen Habermas, who raised an ethics of duty in which, unlike Kant's framework, universality is achieved through dialogue.
A universal rule becomes effective when:
- Its development has been achieved through a process based on communication.
- It may be adopted by all concerned if they participate in the dialogue.
With the incorporation of the speaker and listener, communication shares moral notions established by consensus and forms the bases of a just and proper behavior. From this approach, Javier Muguerza suggests that progress is necessary to show dissent with the actual situation, rather than consensus, allowing for right and just progress.
John Rawls's Theory of Justice
The American philosopher John Rawls published his Theory of Justice, which states that a behavior is morally acceptable when it respects certain values called principles of justice. These principles would be the result of a pact among a group of individuals who know nothing of themselves (the "veil of ignorance") to avoid the bias of searching for one's own interests.
The principles of justice that will govern social life are contained in a contract and are two:
- The Principle of Maximum Liberty Compatible: Ensuring the greatest possible liberty for all, compatible with the liberty of others.
- The Principle of Social Justice (The Difference Principle): This supports certain inequalities that respect equal opportunities and promote the greatest benefit to the disadvantaged.