Key Phases and Turning Points of the Spanish Civil War
The First Months of War (July–December 1936)
The primary objective of the military rebels was the capture of Madrid. Columns led by Mola were dispatched from Pamplona. Meanwhile, the Army of Africa crossed the Strait of Gibraltar with the assistance of Mussolini. Upon reaching the peninsula, Franco advanced toward Cordoba and Granada from Seville, then moved through Extremadura toward Madrid, securing territory despite fierce Republican resistance in Badajoz. However, upon reaching the outskirts of Madrid, the capital's efficient defense halted the advance. The Republican government relocated to Valencia for safety.
In October 1936, Catalan militias were directed toward the Aragon front. The disorganization and lack of preparation of these columns partly explain their subsequent weakness. Additionally, the Catalan expedition to Mallorca and Ibiza, which aimed to reclaim the islands from the military rebels, ultimately failed.
The Second Phase: From Jarama to the Battle of the Ebro (January 1937–November 1938)
Insurgent troops attempted to conquer Madrid again but failed. Franco then decided to prioritize the conquest of Malaga and the northern front. The northern campaign proved difficult due to popular resistance. In December, Republican troops launched an offensive against Teruel; however, the city was recovered by Franco after a bloody battle a month later.
In March 1938, Franco's army began an offensive against the Aragon front, occupying parts of Catalonia and repealing the Statute of Autonomy. By April 15, Nationalist forces reached the Mediterranean, dividing the Republican zone. The Republican Army, led by Vicente Rojo, prepared an offensive in the Ebro area to reconnect the territory, which began on the night of July 24–25. Despite initial Republican victories, Franco launched a counter-offensive. The Battle of the Ebro ended on November 15, 1938, resulting in a high number of casualties and extreme violence.
The Final Stage: Occupation of Catalonia and Surrender (December 1938–April 1939)
On December 23, 1938, Franco ordered the final offensive against Catalonia, starting at Tremp (Pallars Jussà) and Seròs (Segrià). While the Republican Army resisted for a week at Tremp, the front at Seròs collapsed quickly, leading to a chaotic retreat. Franco's forces occupied Catalonia, taking Tarragona on January 15, Barcelona on January 26, and Girona on February 4. By February 9, they reached the French border, forcing thousands of people, including the Basque and Catalan governments, to flee.
On February 28, Manuel Azaña resigned as President of the Republic. Colonel Segismundo Casado, in charge of the defense of Madrid, sought a negotiated peace, but Franco demanded unconditional surrender. On March 28, Franco's troops occupied Madrid. The final city, Alicante, was occupied on March 31, and on April 1, 1939, the war officially ended.