Key Figures and Movements of the 19th Century
The Bourbon Restoration in France
After Napoleon Bonaparte was expelled by the allies in 1814, the Bourbon monarchy was restored in France. This period, when the Bourbons returned to the throne, was characterized by a strong conservative reaction and the re-establishment of the Catholic Church as a significant political power in France.
The Congress of Vienna (1815)
The Congress of Vienna (1815) was an international meeting held in the Austrian capital. It was convened with the objective of restoring Europe's borders after Napoleon's defeat and reorganizing the political landscape and ideology of the continent. The agreements reached remained in force until World War I, establishing a period of absolutism and relative peace.
Understanding Liberalism
Liberalism rejects absolutism and seeks to recover the rights and freedoms championed during the French Revolution.
Conservative Liberalism
Supported primarily by the high industrial and commercial bourgeoisie and large agricultural landowners, conservative liberalism advocated for moderation in reforms. Key ideas included:
- National sovereignty
- Census suffrage (restricted voting rights)
- Restricted liberties and denial of freedom of association
- Equality before the law (but not social rights)
- A state that is not a police controller in social and economic matters
- A constitutional monarchy with an executive responsible to the legislative branch
Democratic Liberalism
Supported by the petty bourgeoisie and popular classes, democratic liberalism advocated for reforms similar to those of the Jacobins. Key ideas included:
- Popular sovereignty
- Universal suffrage (broader voting rights)
- Broad individual liberties and freedom of association
- Equality before the law, with a strong concern for true social equality
- An interventionist state in economy and society to achieve social justice
- Support for a constitutional monarchy or a republic, with a strong legislative branch and an executive responsible to parliament or legislature
Louis Blanc (1811-1882)
Louis Blanc (1811-1882) was a French politician and historian who was part of the provisional government. He is notable because his motion led the government to undertake to guarantee the existence of workers through work. His request to establish a Ministry of Labor was allegedly rejected as being beyond the competence of a provisional government. He supported the creation of the National Workshops in 1848, advocating for a social state.
Defining Nationalism
Nationalism is based on three fundamental beliefs:
- A homogeneous people.
- Each nation has a territory.
- Each territory and people form a state.
However, in reality, people are rarely truly homogeneous.
Otto von Bismarck: Architect of German Unification
Otto von Bismarck was a statesman, diplomat, politician, and German prose writer, considered the founder of the modern German state. During his later years, he was the Chancellor of Germany, nicknamed 'the Iron Chancellor' for his firm hand. He aimed to address and resolve his country's issues, which included creating a system of international alliances to ensure Germany's supremacy, known as the First Reich. He achieved the unification of Germany in 1871.
Count Cavour: Unifying Italy
Count Cavour (1810-1861), Camillo Benso, was a Piedmontese politician and architect of Italian unification. Following aristocratic tradition, his family assigned him to a military career in the Corps of Engineers, but he left the military due to his liberal ideas. He then dedicated himself to managing the family farm, distinguishing himself as a modern and efficient farmer.
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) was an Italian soldier and politician who contributed significantly to the Kingdom of Italy. He later joined the Italian unification movement, even after Nice was ceded to France as a result of the war with Austria. He is historically noted for his military activities linked to the process that ultimately led to the political unification of Italy. He attempted to impose a republican democracy in France and Italy.
The Criollos in Colonial Latin America
Criollo is a term historically used in the colonial past under Spanish rule to designate inhabitants born in America to parents of exclusively Spanish descent. They controlled much of the commerce and land ownership, thus possessing great economic power and social standing. However, they were often displaced from the main political positions in favor of those born in Spain. The Criollos became the protagonist ruling class of Latin America during the independence movements.
Understanding the Term 'Mestizo'
Mestizo is a term derived from Latin, defined as someone born of parents of different races, especially a white man and an Indigenous woman, or an Indigenous man and a white woman. The term 'race' itself has been subject to controversy, with some scientists today denying the concept of human races or seeking to replace it with 'ethnicity'.
Simón Bolívar: Liberator of South America
Simón Bolívar (1783-1830) was a Venezuelan soldier and politician, and one of the leading figures of American Emancipation from the Spanish Empire. Along with the Argentine José de San Martín, he contributed decisively to the independence of present-day Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela. He collaborated with San Martín, notably at Ayacucho in 1824. His vision was to create a Gran Colombia (Great Colombia) confederation.