Kant and the Enlightenment: Reason, Morality and Modern Philosophy
Kant and the Enlightenment: Historical Context
Kant. Historical context. The Enlightenment of the 18th century gave rise to a new model of the world and of the way people live. Even now, different social classes coexist: the bourgeois, the aristocrat, and the common people. While the bourgeois becomes more active through income and practical possibilities, a new way of thinking appears that reflects the intellectual enlightenment of the era. This movement originated in England and spread rapidly across the European continent. The key element of the Enlightenment was the vindication of human reason and the autonomy of thought. The new world would be a happier one.
The Enlightenment brought about a modification of the 18th-century European political map. The main powers of the time were France, England, Russia and Prussia. What stands out at the end of the century is the French Revolution, and this era was also a period of economic recovery and great transformations.
Economic Situation
Fundamentally, agriculture remained the main economic activity. Between 80 and 90 percent of the population lived in the countryside, and agricultural production was the base of the economy. The Agricultural Revolution brought improvements and the introduction of new tools. A key factor was the demographic explosion of the 18th century: in fifty years the European population nearly doubled.
At the end of the century, England began the Industrial Revolution, as a consequence of the discovery of the steam engine, which transformed the economy. Land was mostly owned by the nobility and the Church, and the bourgeoisie had no access to property. The social system was based on the claim that the Church was free and that the market was regulated by existing social structures.
Social Situation
Society was divided into three estates: the nobility, the clergy and the third estate. However, the social organization was in decline. The nobility, based on its land possessions, lost economic weight to the bourgeoisie and the industrial business owner. To avoid the rising power of the bourgeoisie, the lords did not allow them access to charges, and they sought to secure the servitude of the peasants. This situation provoked growing unrest, which led to the French Revolution in 1789.
Political Situation
In most of Europe, absolute monarchies dominated. This gave rise to forms of government based on despotism, in which the state made decisions at its own risk. The lack of political participation of the bourgeois class and the modernization of society clashed with the interests of the privileged aristocracy. In 1776 the United States of America declared its independence, and in 1787 it proclaimed its first constitution.
General Features of the Illumination
Confidence in reason. Thanks to the belief that reason could be exercised by all, it was thought that thought could improve the world and that the state could progress through reason. The Enlightenment was a critical movement of great significance. In Kant's philosophy, dogmatism loses its validity, and the theoretical field gives way to tolerance and practical issues. Against every manifestation of fanaticism, the Enlightenment criticized the traditional order.
Criticism of the traditional order: Voltaire pointed out the dangers that prejudices, fanaticism and intolerance posed to humanity. The solution to prejudices consisted in putting aside religious sects and particularism in favor of religious reason. The Enlightenment held that only a peaceful philosophy could provide coexistence among people of different religious beliefs.
Natural Religion: Religion was led to the defense of reason, in the form of natural religion. Natural religion rejects any revelation and accepts only concepts that are rationally valid. In this sense, deism was concerned with the idea of a personal God who does not intervene in earthly affairs. God created and governs the world by means of eternal laws.
Belief in historical progress: History was understood as progress toward a perfect society. Progress was thought to be the natural development of humanity, and the goal was utopian, perhaps too optimistic. Life in this world was not left to an uncertain future existence beyond the body. Many people were willing to sacrifice themselves for this idea, because they believed that reason would spread and bring happiness. Progress was to be built on reasonable principles grounded in society.
Secularization of reason: This phenomenon progressively moved the focus toward establishing secular human affairs. Theological premises that had been treated as the ultimate foundation were replaced by rational elements.
Key Concepts
The central Christian conception was theocentrism, a world in which God is the principle of reality. God intervenes in human history through providence and divine redemption, and man seeks his salvation in the transcendent. With the new outlook, divine providence was transformed so that it manifested itself as unlimited progress through the conviction in reason and in humanity. The movement's own artistic work often adopted an anti-religious tone, marked by this movement.