The Industrial Revolution: Origins and Social Transformation

The Industrial Revolution (defined as a radical and rapid change in production methods) transformed the way goods were manufactured. It began in localized regions of England and extended to Europe, the United States, and Japan, though many areas of the world remained outside this revolution.

Key Causes of the Industrial Revolution

1. Capital Accumulation: Following the discovery of America and the onset of the Modern Age, there was an accumulation of capital in the hands of the rich bourgeoisie, leading to heavy investment in railways and industry.
2. Population Growth: Agricultural improvements and the cleaning up of cities allowed for a population increase during the 18th century. This resulted in higher demand and a surplus of people from rural fields.
3. The Textile Sector: This sector was the first to "take off." The ability to produce cheap cotton clothing caused demand to shoot up, encouraging the introduction of machines such as steam looms.
4. The Factory System: The transition from the "putting-out system" to the factory was driven by population increases. Intermediaries previously took production to farmers in their homes, but there was no guarantee of timely delivery. Growing demand led to a different approach: copying the prison model, factories were established where the surplus rural population worked many hours for money, allowing for the control of time at work.

The Agrarian Revolution

The Agrarian Revolution occurred in parallel and directly influenced industrialization. Key developments included:

• The Norfolk System: A system for crop rotation that moved beyond the fallow method, increasing production by 30% to 50%. It utilized forage plants like alfalfa, clover, and turnips.
• New Crops: Introduction of crops such as maize, cabbage, and potatoes.
• Improved Tools: The development of the iron plow, horseshoes, and early mechanical planters and harvesters.
• The Enclosure Acts: These laws favored joint owners of plots and open fields. They mandated that all land must be enclosed; those who could not afford to do so lost their land. Previously, land belonged to the council or the community; these acts led to more investment but fewer peasants.

Social Class Structure After the Revolution

The first fundamental change was the appearance of a class society based on wealth and merit. The bourgeoisie became the dominant group as their wealth increased. These were people with middle or higher education who imposed their social models, which valued work, personal success, family, and refined treatment.

The Bourgeoisie

• Upper Middle Class: Very rich bourgeois and nobles with many properties. They lived on rent and industrial income, copied the aristocratic lifestyle, and tried to buy titles or heritage to ennoble themselves.
• Middle Bourgeoisie: Lawyers, doctors, and people who worked for the State, mostly concentrated in large cities.
• Low Bourgeoisie: Small merchants, artisans, shopkeepers, and workshop officials with some property.

The Nobility and Lower Classes

• Nobility: This group continued to lose economic power and social prestige. The gentry was eventually displaced by the bourgeoisie.
• Lower Class:
  • Proletariat: People in the industry who worked under very hard living conditions. During the 19th century, they mixed with the petty bourgeoisie and organized politically to improve their situation.
  • Peasants: The majority of the population. They had limited resources; while some owned small plots, most did not benefit from the changes.
  • Laborers: The most disadvantaged group, working for others for wages without the guarantee of steady work.