Industrial, Agricultural and Demographic Changes in 18th–19th Century Europe

1.1 The Demographic Revolution

From the mid-eighteenth century, the population of Europe began a process of sustained growth. The continent's population grew from 140 million in 1750 to 187 million in 1800, and 266 million in 1850. This growth rate was higher and faster in Britain, which increased from about 5 million to 10 million. The causes of this demographic change were the increased production of food and the advancement of medicine and hygiene. These developments made the population more resistant to diseases and epidemics. As a consequence, there was a decrease in mortality and a slight increase in the birth rate.

1.2 The Agricultural Revolution

Population increase caused a rise in demand and higher agricultural prices, which motivated landowners to improve production. This was thanks to two major changes: the enclosure (privatization) of common land and the application of new farming techniques. The land became private property. Regarding cultivation techniques, the innovation was the abolition of long fallow periods in favor of crop rotation and the introduction of replacement and fodder crops. There also began a mechanization of farming. The introduction of new crops, such as maize (corn) and potatoes, and the expansion of livestock farming allowed the population to have a richer and more varied diet.

2.1 Machines, Steam and Factories

Machines were replacing manual work and modifying old traditional systems. Each technical advance meant increased productivity and decreased production costs, enabling goods to be sold more cheaply, increasing demand and leading to higher profits. The earliest machines were driven by water power and later by human or animal energy and hydraulic devices. But the major innovation was the steam engine developed and improved by James Watt (1769). Mechanization and the introduction of new energy sources created the factory system, which consisted of the concentration of workers and machines in a factory.

3.1 The Railway and Steamship

Rails were used in mines to transport ore with wagons that moved on fixed tracks. The major breakthrough was the development of the locomotive (Stephenson, 1829), which shortened travel times, increased safety, and lowered freight costs; it transformed land transportation and commerce.

4.1 Liberalism and Capitalism

A series of British scholars defined economic liberalism. Adam Smith noted principles of liberalism, including:

• Personal interest and the pursuit of maximum profit as an engine of economic activity.
• Diverse interests are balanced thanks to the market price mechanism that adjusts supply and demand.
• The state should abstain from intervening in the functioning of the economy and should allow the free development of individual interests.