The Human Subject and Moral Action in Modern Philosophy

Modernity, Enlightenment, and Humanism

René Descartes is the bearer of a profound change, one that grants the philosophical category of the subject, referring to the human being, a role and character as a theoretical and practical foundation. This role is similar to what metaphysical concepts like substance, essence, or nature had played in the past.

This primacy of subjectivity and consciousness has been a hallmark of modern philosophy and remained dominant until the twentieth century. Humanity has become a particular object of knowledge, giving rise to the various "human sciences" in their varied developments.

In turn, humanity has also become a subject of universal rights, notably in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen enacted in 1789, which has since been extended and prolonged, with political and social consequences of the first order.

The living human being is one who questions their own self. This self-questioning cannot be limited by individual particularity or by the abstract notion of "man," but rather by a cultural, historical, political, and social humanity. Inherent in this humanity is plurality, the existence of individuals with other individuals, and the coexistence of many different ways to realize and update what it means to be human. This perspective is not merely about complying with what "is" but always looking to what "should be," thus remaining perpetually open to the future.

The Foundations of Moral Action: Freedom and Responsibility

Human Action as Moral Action

The concept of action consists of:

• A "teleological structure," integrating at least a "plan of action."
• A specific "situation."
• The interpretation of the situation.
• A "decision between alternative actions."
• The completion of a social order.

Action, in this context, stands in contrast to an atomic model of action, where the individual is considered a kind of atom whose movements are external to processual and interactive structures. Social action, therefore, requires a model of interpersonal or inter-action.

Communicative Action and Understanding

"Communicative action is that form of social interaction that aims at reaching an inter-subjective agreement. This agreement is, in turn, made possible by universal and necessary structures of language."

The universal pragmatics developed by Jürgen Habermas seeks to identify "the universal conditions of possible understanding." By discovering these conditions, it becomes feasible to advance in the search for a consensus that allows us to understand ourselves as actors and community members.