Historical Events: Independence, Empires, and Revolutions
Reasons for Independence
The rise of taxes imposed by Britain on the English colonists in the Thirteen Colonies, influenced by Enlightenment ideas, led to war among the settlers.
Declaration of Independence
The Declaration of Independence was proclaimed in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776. The U.S. Army defeated British troops, and peace was signed in 1783.
Napoleonic Empire
In 1804, Napoleon became emperor.
Domestic Affairs
The Civil Code was drawn up, guaranteeing private property and equality for all citizens.
Foreign Policy
Napoleon's empire stretched throughout Europe. Great Britain underwent a continental blockade. Napoleon was defeated in 1813 and exiled to the island of St. Helena.
Restoration and Liberalism
The union of monarchies and absolutists, with the UK in opposition, sought to restore the old regime. The United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and France met at the Congress of Vienna and formed the Quadruple Alliance.
Liberalism
Liberalism defended individual freedom, opposed the absolute power of kings, and held that power resided in the people. The bourgeoisie should exercise power. It left aside the social problems that emerged in the nineteenth century.
National Sovereignty
Power resides in the people, with election through census suffrage.
Separation of Powers
The legislative, executive, and judiciary powers cannot be taken over by the same person.
Natural Rights
Every human being has the rights of virtue, equality, and tolerance. Revolutions began in 1820 against the restoration, which was repeated in 1821 in Greece and 1830 in France.
Nation
A nation consists of members who share a past, a common language, and culture.
Revolutions of 1848
A wave of revolutions characterized by democratic and nationalist ideals. The bourgeoisie was overwhelmed by the ideals of French workers. A new revolutionary movement of the petty bourgeoisie and the workers demanded universal suffrage and the establishment of the Second Republic. Revolutions took place in German and Italian states, but these failed.
Unification of Italy
The Kingdom of Sardinia was unified. France supported Italy to oust Austria from Lombardy. Thanks to the actions of Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of Italy.
Unification of Germany
The stronger states were Austria and Prussia, led by Bismarck. Prussia achieved the unification of Germany. Austria and Prussia clashed in 1866 in a war that resulted in the defeat of Austria.
Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism is a return to Greek and Roman art, which continued from the Baroque period. Notable works include the Arc de Triomphe and the Magdalena by Canova. Antonio Church was a favorite artist, and David was the most important painter.