Global Colonialism: Territories, Systems, and Historical Impact

Colonial Territories and Global Expansion

The late 19th and early 20th centuries marked a period of intense global expansion by European powers, leading to the establishment of vast colonial territories. This era was characterized by economic competition, political maneuvering, and significant cultural impact across continents.

Africa: The Scramble for Control

• In 1885, Germany organized the Berlin Conference to regulate the division of Africa. Germany, due to its late unification process, feared being left behind in colonial rule. Other European countries aimed to halt the British front, which sought to establish a belt of colonies from Egypt to Cape Town.
• France possessed vast expanses of the Sahara and surrounding countries. Portugal maintained control over significant ports and territories from its former colonial empire.

Asia: European Dominance and Spheres of Influence

• The peninsula of India was fully colonized by the British.
• French Indochina became a French possession.
• Indonesia was colonized by the Netherlands.

China: Forced Openness and Resistance

• China was compelled to cede control of its mines and allow the division into spheres of foreign trade influence. Major coastal cities like Canton (Guangzhou) and Shanghai were opened to foreign trade.
• The Chinese people resisted foreign encroachment in conflicts such as the Boxer Rebellion.
• After the Treaty of Nanking in 1842, the port of Hong Kong was ceded to the British until 1997.

The Americas: Post-Independence Imperialism

• After gaining independence, Canada was the only country that remained dependent on a European power (Britain), though it enjoyed significant autonomy.
• The United States, while theoretically anti-imperialist, expanded its economic interests in the late 19th century, leading to military interventions in South America, Cuba (against Spain), the annexation of Hawaii, and the occupation of areas bordering the Panama Canal.

Forms of Colonial Administration

Colonial powers employed various methods to administer their territories, each reflecting different levels of control and local autonomy:

• Colony: A territory where the weakness of the local metropolis allowed the colonial power to control the country in all its aspects—economic, political, and cultural. This form of rule triumphed in many parts of Africa.
• Protectorate: Areas that maintained their own local politics but had economic and political relations exclusively with the metropolis. This was common in Asia, especially in India.
• Dominion: A term primarily used within the British Empire for territories fully occupied by new populations of European origin, such as Australia and New Zealand. These enjoyed broad autonomy and their own institutions.

Key Events in Colonial History

1. 1850-1885: Expeditions to find the source of the Nile.
2. 1885: Berlin Conference.
3. 1885-1898: Distribution of the world among colonial powers.
4. 1898: Fashoda Incident between France and Britain.
5. 1900: War of the Chinese Boxers (Boxer Rebellion).
6. 1904-1912: Division of North Africa.

Influential Philosophies of the Era

The colonial era was also shaped by significant intellectual currents:

• Positivism: Auguste Comte's philosophy, emphasizing empirical evidence and scientific method as the sole source of valid knowledge.
• Utilitarianism: A moral philosophy proposing that actions are right if they are useful or for the benefit of a majority, often applied to human behavior in terms of its usefulness to society.
• Marxism: Karl Marx's theory, critiquing capitalism and advocating for class struggle leading to a communist society.

Scientific Advancements and Their Impact

Scientific development during this period contributed to and was influenced by colonialism through:

• Increased academic prestige for scientific exploration.
• Emphasis on experimentation and empirical knowledge.
• Discovery and mapping of new regions of the world.
• A trend towards secularization in thought.