Fundamental Concepts in Epistemology and Metaphysics

Appearance and Reality in Metaphysics

The distinction between appearance and reality is the origin of metaphysics. Appearance is that which is captured by the senses and often does not correspond to what really is, which can only be grasped by reason. The senses capture the look of things, while reason captures the essence behind them.

Defining Truth: Ontic and Epistemological

Ontic Truth

Ontic truth occurs when something truly is what it appears to be. Truth and authenticity are understood as the opposite of inauthenticity.

Epistemological Truth

Epistemological truth is not about the things themselves, but about the knowledge we have of those things. It is considered true when what you say agrees with or corresponds to the facts.

Major Theories of Truth

• Correspondence Theory: Truth is conceived as a proposition that is true if it agrees with or corresponds to reality. This was the first formulation proposed by Aristotle.
• Coherence Theory: This holds that a proposition is not true because it corresponds with reality, but because it is consistent with all other propositions that are considered true.
• Pragmatic Theory: A proposition is true if it yields practical, positive results for the person who holds it.

Formal Science and Realism

Consistency and Deductivity

Requirements of consistency and deductivity are sufficient for formal science; all the propositions of such science ultimately depend on primary axioms.

Realism

• Naive Realism: The belief that the feelings we have depend largely on the structure of our sensorineural apparatus.
• Critical Realism: The belief that there is a reality independent of our minds.

Idealism and Skepticism

Idealism

• Objective Idealism: Plato argued that material reality could not be authentic reality because it is constantly changing.
• Subjective Idealism: Proposed by George Berkeley, suggesting that the only things that exist are minds and their ideas.

Skepticism

• Radical Skepticism: States that humankind is not capable of attaining any certain knowledge.
• Moderate Skepticism: Considers it impossible to reach absolute knowledge, but not because we lack the ability to know.

Dogmatism and Relativism

Dogmatism

Dogmatism is the opposite of skepticism. A dogmatic person accepts without any criticism that humans can attain absolute truth.

Relativism

Relativism refers to positions that believe true knowledge can be reached, but that this knowledge is invalid or subject to change over time.

• Individual Relativism (Subjectivism): The belief that the reality obtained can be different for each individual.
• Social or Cultural Relativism: The belief that there is no single truth, but rather a truth for each social group.
• Historic Relativism: Defends the idea that every historical epoch has its own system of truths.

Criticism, Empiricism, and Rationalism

Criticism

Criticism is the position of affirming that, before a thing is judged real or fake, one must analyze human reason to see if it is capable of accessing such knowledge and under what conditions it may do so.

Empiricism

At birth, our mind is totally empty; everything within it comes from experience. This includes external experience (sensory feelings) and internal experience (knowledge of our own mental operations).

Rationalism

Rationalism posits that knowledge must logically be true or universally valid to be considered genuine.

Intellectualism and Significance

Intellectualism

Advocated by Aristotle, this view suggests that real knowledge can only exist regarding what is eternal and immutable. He states that while knowledge begins with experience, it should not be limited by it in any way.

Significance

One can say something has significance when it is not merely a part of this specific context but carries broader meaning.