Ethics of Happiness and Duty: Bentham, Mill, and Kant

Principles of Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is a form of social hedonism, as it posits that humans possess social feelings as a source of pleasure. Among these is sympathy, which leads us to extend our desire for the goal of moral happiness to others. The primary objective is to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number of living beings; this principle of morality serves as a criterion for making rational decisions.

Bentham and the Arithmetic of Pleasures

The classic utilitarians are Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Bentham discusses an arithmetic of pleasures that rests on two main principles:

• All pleasures are equal in quality based on criteria of intensity, duration, proximity, and safety; they can be calculated based on the amount of pleasure produced.
• The pleasures of different individuals can be compared to reach a maximum total of pleasure.

Mill and the Quality of Pleasures

Mill rejects Bentham's view and claims that pleasures differ not only in quantity but also in quality. He distinguishes between higher pleasures and lower delights. Those who have experienced both types of pleasure can decide which is superior or inferior, but they will almost always prefer intellectual and moral pleasures. Mill has been classified as idealistic because he values social feelings as a significant source of utilitarian pleasure.

Modern Act and Rule Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism has prospered recently in two main forms:

• Utilitarianism of the Act: Requires evaluating the correctness of each individual action by its specific consequences.
• Utilitarianism of the Rule: Requires considering whether an action conforms to a set of rules and evaluating the moral goodness of the consequences of those rules.

Prominent contemporary authors in this field include Brandt and Lyons.

Implications of Justice and Deontology

Other ethical theories understand that happiness is subjective; this is the dimension of justice standards. Immanuel Kant began this tradition, which has been termed Deontological because it focuses on duty, formal rules, and standards, emphasizing the form of the moral law.

Kantian Formalism and Ethical Autonomy

Kant critiques "material ethics," which he calls "ethical material goods" because they indicate the content of the good. He views these as heteronomous ethics because they identify the morally good with a purpose that is not determined by the human will itself but is given by nature. If these theories were correct:

• The desire would be heteronomous, not autonomous, and people would be unable to define their own purposes.
• We would regard as moral duties only those actions that help us achieve a pre-given goal.

However, humans possess a moral conscience and duties that we impose on ourselves in an autonomous, universal, and unconditional manner. These are the powers we call conscience.