The Enlightenment: Reason, Society, and Political Change

Historical Setting

Jean-Jacques Rousseau belongs to the Enlightenment (18th century), which concluded with the French Revolution in 1789. The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement that significantly impacted politics, art, religion, and literature. Its aim was to spread the light of reason against dogmatism, superstition, and fanaticism, leading to the era being known as the Century of Reason.

Characteristics of the Enlightenment

• Definition: A worldview centered on humanity, characterized by blind faith in reason and science.
• Optimism: Belief in the power of reason to reorganize society based on rational principles.
• Human Confidence: Humanity is self-aware and capable of recognizing its own strengths and weaknesses.
• Reason: Based on enlightened sense experience rather than innate rationalist ideas.

Social and Political Context

In the social field, the bourgeoisie became the ruling class, challenging the nobility and the clergy. The application of innovative techniques, such as the steam loom, marked the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, which favored the rise of the bourgeoisie. These advancements fostered confidence in progress and the creation of a more just and equal society.

Revolution and Political Authority

Against the arbitrariness of absolute power, the bourgeoisie supported Enlightenment ideas, seeking equal rights for citizens as proposed by Locke. Political authority must be protected; the king may be dethroned if he abuses the power granted by the people. Despite these social developments, the dominant political system in Europe remained enlightened despotism—a form of government where monarchs (such as Charles III of Spain or Catherine II of Russia) implemented reforms without popular participation.

Sociocultural Impact

Art and Religion

The confrontation between the bourgeoisie and the nobility was reflected in art: while the nobility favored the Rococo style, the bourgeoisie embraced Neoclassicism, which promoted a return to Greek ideals (e.g., the Puerta de Alcalá).

In religion, Enlightenment thinkers defended Deism: the belief in the existence of God without accepting religious institutions, advocating for a natural religion. Deism was enacted through Freemasonry, a secret organization that defended secularism, to which figures like Voltaire, Frederick II, Haydn, and Mozart belonged. In general, supporters of the Enlightenment were proponents of Newtonian science and critical rationalist metaphysics.

Philosophy and the Encyclopedia

The Encyclopedia, written by Diderot, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, and d'Alembert, defended the principles of tolerance and cosmopolitanism, aiming to popularize culture for the moral reform of society. Its pillars were memory, imagination, and reason.

In politics, Montesquieu proposed his theory of the separation of powers: legislative, executive, and judicial. Simultaneously, the social contract theory spread across Europe, attributing the origin of the state and society to an agreement among its members, as proposed by Hobbes and Locke.