English Grammar and Vocabulary

English Grammar

Grammar Rules

Relative Pronouns: Use who/that for people, which/that for objects, that for people or objects, when for time, whose for possession, and where for place.

Defining vs. Non-Defining Clauses: Non-defining clauses provide extra information and are set off by commas. Defining clauses provide essential information and are not set off by commas. Defining clauses can often omit the relative pronoun.

Modal Verbs

Expressing Ability: can, be able to

Giving Advice: should, shouldn't

Expressing Obligation: have to, must

Expressing Lack of Obligation: don't have to, needn't

Expressing Possibility: may, might

Expressing Certainty (True): must

Expressing Certainty (Impossible): can't

Making Polite Requests: could, would

Expressing Prohibition: mustn't

Perfect Modals:

• Criticism/Regret: should have + past participle
• Certainty (True): must have + past participle
• Possibility (True): might/may have + past participle
• Ability but Did Not: could have + past participle
• Intention but Did Not: would have + past participle

Vocabulary and Connectors

Idioms

• Throw in the towel (give up)
• The ball's in your court (it's your turn to act)
• Hitting below the belt (cruel, unfair)
• Learn the ropes (understand how things work)
• Had a head start (began earlier)

Prefixes

Over- (too much, excessively)

Connectors

Addition

• In addition, furthermore, moreover (also)
• To sum up, in conclusion (in summary)
• Also, what's more, as well as, in addition to

Contrast

• However, nevertheless (even so)
• On the one hand, on the other hand
• Although, in spite of, despite (even though)

Gerunds and Infinitives

Gerunds (-ing):

• After some verbs (enjoy, like, love, don't mind, regret)
• After prepositions (for, without, of)
• Some expressions (rather than, despite)
• Beginning of a sentence (e.g., Swimming is very...)

Verbs with "to": want, decide, warn, etc.

"To" or Gerund (No Change in Meaning): We started to sing. We started singing.

"To" or Gerund (Different Meaning): She stopped to watch the film (She stopped doing something else to watch the film). She stopped watching the film (She ceased watching the film).

Infinitive (No Preposition): let, make (e.g., Don't make me cry.)

Connectors: Cause and Result

Cause: because, since, as (followed by a clause); because of, due to, as a result of (followed by a noun)

Result: so, as a result, therefore, consequently, for this reason, as a consequence

Weather and Disaster Vocabulary

seriously, badly, damaged, demolish, collapsed, homeless, citizens, injured, hurt, died, death toll, rubble, crack, gather, avoid, according to, sources say, bitter, blizzard, cage, cattle, cattleman, caught red-handed, chilly, conservation, cosy, cub, deadly, drought, eerie, endangered, fee, fierce, forecast, habitat, humidity, hunting, in captivity, lifelong, lifestyle, lightning, melt, mild, overcast, predator, predictable, put on, rainfall, rather than, rental agency, rescue, run a business, company, shake, shiver, be short of, sink, slip, slippery, soaking wet, treacherous, weather forecaster, witness