The Dawn of Soviet Power: From Revolution to Stalin's Ascendancy

Bolshevik Dictatorship and the Civil War

The Bolshevik dictatorship and the ensuing Civil War saw the emergence of anti-Bolshevik groups, collectively known as the White Army. These forces included diverse elements, sometimes supported by foreign troops from:

• Germany
• Britain
• France
• Poland
• America
• Japan

In November [of 1917], elections were held for the Constituent Assembly, which resulted in a Socialist majority. However, the Bolsheviks dissolved this parliament, consolidating their power. The cornerstone of the new system was the Communist Party, which dominated the Council of People's Commissars and the Soviets. This period also saw the creation of the political police, the Cheka, to suppress opposition.

The Civil War led to the implementation of War Communism, causing a severe collapse in production. Decreased output forced farmers to practice self-sufficiency. By 1920, a wave of protests erupted, culminating in the Kronstadt sailors' rebellion against the Soviets; these protests were brutally suppressed.

Formation of the USSR and the Comintern

In 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was formally created. To promote world revolution, the Comintern, also known as the Third International, was established in March 1919 and chaired by the Russian Communist Party.

In 1920, Russian Communists passed the 21 Conditions for admission to the Comintern, which included:

• Adopting the name "Communist Party"
• Rejecting reformist socialism
• Working within trade unions
• Infiltrating the army
• Maintaining iron discipline
• Obeying the International Executive Committee, with members who did not comply being expelled

The New Economic Policy (NEP) 1921-1927

From 1921 until 1927, the New Economic Policy (NEP) was implemented, introducing a mixed economy. While the state maintained control over heavy industry, private enterprise was allowed on a profit basis, including private trade. This policy led to an increase in trade and the development of a small middle class, often referred to as "NEPmen."

The results of the NEP were not entirely satisfactory. Although production levels reached those of 1913 by 1926, there were significant price fluctuations, indicating underlying economic instability.

Structure and Constitutions of the Soviet Union

The Soviet Union (USSR) was formally established in 1922, formed by the union of Soviet Socialist Republics: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Transcaucasia.

The 1924 Constitution declared that the USSR represented a decisive step towards the union of workers of all countries. The Soviets were established as the fundamental institutions of the state.

In 1936, a new constitution was adopted, which altered the electoral system, allowing voters to directly elect members to the Soviets at all levels. The Supreme Soviet, the highest legislative body, was formed with two chambers: the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities.

Centralized Power and the Party

At the apex of the political structure was the Central Committee, headed by the Secretary General, which oversaw a vast territorial party structure. Its primary function was to implement the dictatorship of the proletariat through the Communist Party.

Lenin's Succession: The Trotsky-Stalin Rivalry

Following Lenin's death in 1924, a fierce power struggle ensued between Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin. Stalin, leveraging his position as General Secretary, skillfully consolidated power within the Communist Party. He championed the doctrine of "Socialism in One Country," focusing on building socialism within the Soviet Union's borders.

In contrast, Trotsky, a proponent of "Permanent Revolution," believed that the success of the Soviet revolution depended on the spread of communism worldwide. He also critically denounced what he saw as the negative aspects of the NEP.

Their fundamental disagreement over revolutionary strategy led to a bitter confrontation. Ultimately, Trotsky was outmaneuvered, deported to Siberia, and exiled from the USSR. He later founded the Fourth International in opposition to Stalin's regime. In 1940, he was assassinated in Mexico.