The Crisis of Ferdinand VII: Absolutism, Liberalism, and American Independence

Ferdinand VII: Absolutism, Liberalism, and Crisis (1814-1833)

Upon the conclusion of the War of Independence, Ferdinand VII returned to Spain, entering the province of Girona. From the moment of his return, absolutists advised him to nullify the work of the Cortes of Cádiz.

The Restoration of Absolute Monarchy

To encourage the King to restore the absolute monarchy, 69 absolutist MPs presented him with a document known as the Manifesto of the Persians (Manifiesto de los Persas). In May 1814, Ferdinand VII annulled the 1812 Constitution and its challenging provisions, confirming the abolition of jurisdictional rights (señoríos).

Ferdinand VII entered Madrid, and his reign can be broadly divided into three stages. Initially, the King persecuted liberals, who took refuge in secret societies and conspired with the help of the army to seize power. Some guerrillas who had fought for the King now took up arms against the absolutist government. For example, Díaz Porlier rebelled in A Coruña but, lacking sufficient support, was arrested and executed.

Post-War Devastation and Economic Collapse

Spain, post-war, faced widespread devastation: fields lay uncultivated, bridges were destroyed, and cities suffered from buildings burned by the French. This economic crisis was compounded by the lack of gold and silver reserves, as the colonies had begun their independence movements. Furthermore, the nobility regained their traditional privileges and paid no taxes.

The Liberal Triennium and Riego's Revolt

In this volatile situation, Commander Rafael del Riego led a rebellion in Cabezas de San Juan (Seville) in 1820. Riego's army was originally intended for deployment in America to quell the colonial revolts. This successful uprising forced Ferdinand VII to restore the Constitution of 1812, ushering in the Liberal Triennium (1820–1823).

The Emancipation of Spanish America

Following the War of Independence, the American colonies became increasingly isolated from Spain, a situation exacerbated by the Battle of Trafalgar. The colonies refused to recognize Joseph Bonaparte as king. While Spain resisted the French occupation, local juntas were formed, often imitating the US model, which eventually led to Creole independence movements. Indigenous populations also participated actively.

The Drive for Independence

Once the War of Independence concluded in Spain, the Creoles refused to return to Spanish dependence. Their primary motivations included the desire for free trade with the USA and England, and the ambition to emulate the independent United States.

Ferdinand VII sent an army of 10,000 men, which initially managed to quell some revolts. However, two great military leaders emerged to challenge Spanish rule:

• Simón Bolívar: Known as "The Liberator," Bolívar defeated the Spanish army, achieving independence for Gran Colombia (modern Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador).
• José de San Martín: San Martín secured the independence of Chile and met Bolívar in Peru.

Final Spanish defeat and the definitive achievement of independence for most of South America occurred at the Battle of Ayacucho in Peru in 1824.

Mexican Independence

In Mexico, the initial protests were led by priests Miguel Hidalgo and José María Morelos, who gained significant indigenous support but were ultimately defeated and executed. Later, Colonel Agustín de Iturbide achieved Mexican independence, along with the lands of Central America, declaring himself Emperor Agustín I.