Core Ethical Theories: Happiness, Virtue, and Morality

1. Ethical Morals

These theories underpin the basic moral value: Good. The supreme good of life is happiness. To achieve this end, we follow specific standards of moral content.

1.1 Natural or Rational Eudaemonism

• Eudaemonism means happiness. Aristotle argues that we find happiness through intellectual activity, which is the defining characteristic of humanity.
• Aristotle believes that happiness is not always guaranteed, as luck plays a significant role.
• While individuals may desire other goods, nothing is truly good unless it aligns with virtue (a habit or disposition acquired through learning).
• Aristotle distinguishes between:
  • Ethical Virtues: Acquired through practice.
  • Dianoetic Virtues: Acquired through learning (wisdom, etc.).
• For Aristotle, true good and happiness can only be fully assessed upon the completion of a life.

1.2 Transcendent Eudaemonism

• Christianity: Thomas Aquinas adapted Greek eudaemonism, proposing that human happiness lies in the pursuit, possession, and contemplation of God. True happiness is achieved in the afterlife.
• Reason points the way to the right path. The journey is guided by Natural Law—the eternal purpose God placed within every creature.
• Natural law dictates that we must do good and avoid evil. This moral consciousness is universal and unchanging. Reason helps us apply these contents to our daily lives.
• Positive Law: Established by the state to seek the common good.

1.3 Hedonism

• Hedoné means pleasure.
• Epicurus: The aim of moral life is to pursue good and enjoyable experiences while avoiding moral evil.
• Humans must achieve ataraxia, or maximum serenity. Epicurus advises prioritizing intellectual pleasures of the spirit over those of the body.

1.4 Utilitarianism

• Jeremy Bentham founded utilitarian doctrines, but John Stuart Mill provides the most prominent example.
• An action is considered useful if it increases pleasure and reduces pain.
• The ideal is to manage society to achieve the highest possible welfare for all citizens.
• Equality is a fundamental value in this framework.