Core Concepts of Ethical Theory and Moral Philosophy
Foundations of Ethical Theory
Ethical materials are those moral theories that underlie the existence of a basic value that is good. Virtue is a habit acquired through learning, which enables a person to do good and be happy.
Types of Virtues
- Ethical Virtues: Acquired habits (e.g., justice).
- Dianoetic Virtues: Wisdom achieved through education.
- Prudence: Occurs when applied to any virtue ethics.
- Wisdom: The virtue that helps achieve greater happiness.
"Happiness is living in Aristotelian wisdom."
Eudaemonism and Natural Law
Eudaemonism suggests that a person cannot be considered truly happy until after death. Natural law is the presence of the eternal law in a rational creature, while eternal law is God's order imposed as the goal of nature. Positive law is the reasoning that applies the contents of natural law to daily life.
Hedonism and Epicurean Ethics
The hedonistic ethic of Epicurus encourages human beings to be free from false fears and to enjoy pleasures. Ataraxia, or tranquility, reaches its maximum, similar to that of the gods.
Formal and Egoistic Ethics
Formal ethics does not specify content for moral action, focusing instead on the rectitude of intention. Defects of egoistic ethics:
- Insufficient respect for individual freedom and autonomy.
- Reliance on experience to determine right or wrong.
- Actions are judged solely by whether they aim at a specific goal.
Autonomy and Moral Obligation
Autonomous morality arises from the subject's own reason, whereas heteronomous morality derives standards from external sources. Duty is the norm dictated by reason itself.
Pleasure Classifications
- Catastematic pleasures: Dynamic and discontinuous.
- Acatastematic pleasures: Stable, continuous, and negative.
The Categorical Imperative and Empiricism
The obligation is characterized by being a formal principle that is a priori, universal, and autonomous. The Categorical Imperative is the supreme criterion of morality, representing an absolute imposition of reason and the link between duty and good will. Empiricism is characterized by sensory experience, shifting the role of reason in understanding reality.
Nihilism and the Nature of Values
Nihilism signifies the absence of answers to previously resolved questions. Values are not the result of pragmatic conventions but are ideal objects independent of human valuation.
Characteristics of Values
- Worth: They exist independently of human perception.
- Timelessness: They persist regardless of the time period.
- Polarization: They are presented in pairs of opposites.
- Knowledge: Values are grasped through the "sense of value."
Ethics of Consensus: An approach that seeks to bridge differences between the individual and the political community.