The Catholic Monarchs: Institutional Reforms and Spanish Unification

The Iberian Peninsula in the 15th Century: Recovery and Transformation

Demographic and Economic Recovery

The serious crisis of the late Middle Ages ended, marking the start of a significant demographic and economic recovery (Europa XV).

Economic Growth and Trade

The disappearance of the Black Death, coupled with the recovery of fields and crops, fueled population growth and increased demand. This led to:

• Increased agricultural production.
• Resumption of trade and shipping routes (Mediterranean, Baltic, North Sea activity).
• Increased production and growth of artisan towns.

Rise of the Bourgeoisie

Economic growth led to the accumulation of wealth in the hands of the bourgeoisie. Their power was based on investing in productive activities, characteristic of commercial capitalism.

Strengthening of the Monarchy

Previously, the king's power was limited by the nobility and powerful cities. Monarchs sought to impose their authority, successfully establishing an authoritarian monarchy during the 15th century.

Union of Castile and Aragon

The union began in 1469 with the marriage of Ferdinand, son of Juan II (King of the Crown of Aragon), and Princess Isabella, sister of Enrique IV (King of Castile).

In 1479, following the death of Juan II, Ferdinand was proclaimed king. Isabella secured her position as Queen after the Castilian Civil War (1475–1479), where she faced her niece Juana. This was a dynastic union, not a unification into a single kingdom.

Territorial Expansion

Key territorial acquisitions included:

• The conquest of the Kingdom of Granada (1482–1492) after a ten-year war.
• The incorporation of the Kingdom of Navarre (1515).
• Portugal was later inherited by Philip II (Felipe II).

The Reign of the Catholic Monarchs: Institutional and Religious Policy

Foreign Policy and Expansion

The Crown played a crucial role in European politics and continued its expansion:

• Italy: Conquest of the Kingdom of Naples (1505), securing control over Southern Italy.
• North Africa: Conquests included Melilla (1497), Oran, and Bugia (1509).
• Atlantic: The Canary Islands were fully incorporated (1496).

Consolidation of Royal Power

The Catholic Monarchs asserted the king's authority above all other powers within their states. In the Crown of Aragon, the position of Viceroy was established, serving as the monarch's representative in each territory.

Institutional Pillars of the Authoritarian Monarchy

To end the existing anarchy and disorder upon Isabella's ascension, several key institutions were created or reformed:

• The Holy Brotherhood (Santa Hermandad, 1476): An armed body responsible for arresting and prosecuting criminals and offenders, ensuring public order.
• Professional Army: A permanent professional army was created, controlled directly by the monarchy.
• Justice System: The Royal Court (Audiencia Real) was established to ensure justice and make it more effective.
• Financial System: The tax collection system was strengthened, and the Contaduría Real de Hacienda (Royal Accounting Office) was created to fund the new institutions.
• Corregidores: Royal officials who presided over municipal councils and performed governmental functions (funciones gubernativas).

Religious Uniformity and the Inquisition

The monarchs sought to enforce Catholic orthodoxy across their realms:

• Jews: Those who refused conversion were persecuted and expelled (1492).
• Moors/Moriscos: Cardinal Cisneros mandated forced baptisms, leading to the expulsion of the Moors (Muslims who had been baptized, known as Moriscos) in 1502 if they refused conversion.
• The Inquisition (Court of the Holy Office, 1478): Established to control the maintenance of Catholic orthodoxy and monitor converts (both Jewish and Muslim).