Ancient Greek Philosophy: Sophism, Stoicism, Epicureanism

Sophism

Sophism was an intellectual movement that emerged in Greece in the fifth century BC. Its proponents, notably Protagoras, were considered wise. It marked significant developments within Hellenic thought. The formation of national consciousness among the masses began to influence public life, creating a need to convince and to counter arguments. The philosopher emerged as a man engaged in society, actively discussing rather than merely meditating or lecturing. Humanity confronted both the universe and its own reality, perceiving an unstable and problematic existence. The intellectual became a social force, teaching for remuneration. Sophism was an expression of a crisis, raising the problem of valid knowledge of nature and the search for a truth in which humanity could trust. It was born of a moral distrust.

Stoicism

Stoicism emerged in the Hellenistic period and is traditionally divided into three stages:

• Old Stoa: Founded by Zeno of Citium, establishing a distinct school of thought.
• Middle Stoa: Focused on dogmatic reflections concerning human and moral problems.
• New Stoa: Prevalent during Roman imperial times, emphasizing ethics and theology.

Stoicism refers to the attitude of facing life's adversities with courage and acceptance.

Stoic Philosophy: Three Divisions

Stoic philosophy was divided into three parts:

• Physics: The study of nature. The universe is a harmonious whole and connected, governed by an active principle, the cosmic and universal Logos. Everything is governed by a law which is immanent, rational, and necessary. Destiny is the chain of events inextricably linked; there is no chance, only sheer ignorance of causal events.
• Logic: Divided into rhetoric (the art of speaking) and dialectic (the art of discourse). Sense impressions were considered the only form of knowledge.
• Moral: Humanity is part of the universal Logos, participating in world events. Freedom is the acceptance of our own destiny, to live according to nature. The moral good and virtue are to live according to reason, avoiding the passions. Passions can be controlled by reason, leading to an impassive and imperturbable state. The wise person lives according to reason, free from passions, and acts as a world citizen.

Epicureanism

Founded by Epicurus, born in 341 BC, Epicureanism was more than a philosophy; it was an association, almost a religious community, centered around Epicurus himself. Epicurus viewed philosophy as the path to achieving happiness, defined as freedom from passions, thus assigning philosophy a purely instrumental value. The value of philosophy lay in its ability to:

• Free individuals from the fear of gods (who do not concern themselves with human affairs).
• Free individuals from the fear of death.
• Demonstrate the limited accessibility of pleasure.

It represents a trend in post-Aristotelian philosophy to subordinate speculative research to a practical end. Like Stoicism, Epicureanism distinguished three parts: logic, physics, and ethics.