Ancient Egypt: From the Middle Kingdom to the Saite Era
The Lower Empire and the Saite Renaissance
After 1100 BC, there was a long period of decline marked by the conquest of various peoples, including the Assyrians in 622 BC under Ashurbanipal. Psamtik I, ruler of the city of Sais, eventually freed the country from the Assyrians, beginning the last period of Egyptian independence. Later, in 525 BC, Egypt was conquered by the Persians under Cambyses, becoming a mere province.
Economics and Socio-Cultural Values
Irrigated agriculture was the principal economic activity in Ancient Egypt, directly linked to large-scale hydro projects. The state managed all productive activities as the keeper of the land. The peasant population lived within a repressive structure of collective serfdom (royal corvée), paying taxes in the form of products or labor to the Pharaoh. There was no regional production specialization, and the area was self-sufficient regarding basic raw materials. The economy was not monetized, and objects were exchanged through barter. Artisans worked primarily to decorate palaces and create personal ornaments.
Social Structure and Religious Beliefs
Egyptian society was marked by immobility and a rigid pyramidal structure divided into layers:
- I: Pharaoh and his family
- II: Priests, top bureaucrats, and aristocrats (descendants of ancient nomarchs)
- III: Military and scribes
- IV: Artisans and traders
- V: Peasants and slaves (who were not numerous and were usually prisoners of war)
The religion was polytheistic with an anthropozoomorphic character. Belief in the afterlife led to the development of the cult of the dead and advanced techniques of mummification.
The Middle Kingdom (2000–1750 BC)
During the Middle Kingdom, the Pharaoh recovered power and established the new capital at Thebes (Valley of the Kings). The pharaohs of the XII Dynasty expanded irrigation works, restoring prosperity to Egypt. Despite this prosperity, the Hyksos from Asia Minor, with their military superiority, invaded Egypt and reigned in the Delta for nearly two centuries, keeping the Pharaohs isolated at Thebes. At that time, there was also the invasion of the Hebrews (Semites).
The New Empire (1580–1100 BC)
After the expulsion of the Hyksos in 1580 BC by Ahmose I, there was an awakening of nationalism and militarism. This period saw the Hebrews subjected to slavery until 1250 BC, an episode known as the Exodus. This was the heyday of Egypt as the world's greatest empire. Thutmose III (1480–1448 BC) achieved the largest territorial expansion, reaching the Euphrates, while Ramses II (1292–1225 BC) defeated the Hittites at the Battle of Kadesh, ensuring control over Palestine and Syria.
The new wealth allowed for the construction of magnificent temples at Luxor and Karnak, known as the abode of the gods. During the New Empire, a monotheistic religious reform (1350 BC) was held by Amenhotep IV (1377–1358 BC), who changed his name to Akhenaten ('the one who pleases Aten'), though this reform was annulled after his death.