Al-Andalus and the Christian Kingdoms: History & Legacy
The Al-Andalus from Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries
After the collapse of the Caliphate of Córdoba (1031), the weak Taifa kingdoms emerged, and Christian rule gradually replaced Muslim dominance in the Iberian Peninsula.
The Historical Evolution of Al-Andalus
Following the conquest of Toledo by Alfonso VI (1085) until the end of the fifteenth century, Al-Andalus was controlled first by the Almoravids and later by the Almohads. Ultimately, it was reduced to the Kingdom of Granada.
The Almoravids
The Almoravids were Berber nomads who established a vast empire in North Africa in the early eleventh century. In 1086, invited by the Taifa kings, they entered the peninsula. After defeating the Christians at the Battle of Sagrajas (1086), they imposed their rule in Al-Andalus and implemented a strict religious order. By 1145, their empire had disintegrated into new Taifa kingdoms.
The Almohads
The Almohads succeeded the Almoravids in North Africa. Between 1146 and 1172, they gained control of Al-Andalus and enforced an even more radical religious ideology. After their victory at the Battle of Alarcos (1195), the Reconquista was halted until the Christians defeated them at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212). This defeat opened the Guadalquivir Valley to Christian advancement and led to the decline of the Almohad empire, which fragmented into Taifa kingdoms (1224), gradually conquered by the Christians. Consequently, Al-Andalus was reduced to the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada.
The Kingdom of Granada
The Kingdom of Granada survived for over two centuries, thanks to support from Muslims in North Africa and the diplomatic skills of its kings, who secured peace with Castile by paying taxes (parias). However, in the late fifteenth century, internal conflicts and weakened North African alliances allowed the Catholic Monarchs to conquer the kingdom in 1492.
Culture and the Arts in Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus produced prominent figures in culture.
Notable historians included Ibn Khaldun, and philosophers such as Averroes and the Jewish scholar Maimonides, both experts in Aristotelian philosophy. Significant advancements were also made in marine cartography.
Artistic Legacy
The Muslims constructed magnificent buildings adorned with rich decorations. From the Almohad period, the most notable examples are the Giralda, the minaret of Seville, and the Torre del Oro, which was part of the city's defensive structures. The fortress-palace of the Alhambra in Granada is a prime example of Moorish architecture.
The Kingdoms of Castile and León
Castile and León were permanently united in 1230 under Ferdinand III, after periods of union and separation. Portugal had gained independence in the twelfth century and completed its own Reconquista in the thirteenth century with the capture of the Algarve (1249).
The Reconquista by Castile and León incorporated the territory between the valleys of the Duero and Guadalquivir rivers. In the eleventh century, they reached the Tagus River, following the capture of Toledo by Alfonso VI of León (1085). In the twelfth century, they reached the Sierra Morena mountains, after the conquest of Cuenca (1177) by Alfonso VIII. The Almohad defeat at Navas de Tolosa (1212) by Alfonso VIII of Castile allowed Ferdinand III of Castile and León to take Córdoba (1236), Jaén (1246), and Seville (1248), and his son Alfonso X to incorporate Cádiz (1265) and the Kingdom of Murcia. Al-Andalus was then confined to the Kingdom of Granada.
Castilian and Aragonese Expansion
Castilian Expansion
After seizing the Strait of Gibraltar (1492), Castile expanded into the Atlantic, conquering the Canary Islands during the fifteenth century.
Expansion of the Crown of Aragon
In the Mediterranean, Aragon continued its expansion with the conquest of Sardinia (1323), the Duchies of Athens and Neopatria in Greece (1380-1388), and Naples in Italy (1442).
Curia Regia: This was an assembly composed of the principal nobles, bishops, and abbots of the realm, who advised the king on matters of government.
Cortes: These were assemblies that arose when the King convened meetings of the Curia Regia with representatives from some cities. The first occurred in 1188 in León, and later in other peninsular kingdoms during the thirteenth century.
Councils: With the emergence of the Cortes, the function of advising the king was increasingly carried out by other agencies.
Monarchy: The monarchy was the leading institution in the peninsular kingdoms, and their kings wielded more power than their counterparts in other European territories.