19th-Century Spanish Economic and Social Transformation
Demographic Crisis in 19th-Century Spain
Spain faced a demographic crisis characterized by war, famine, emigration, and epidemics. This period saw high mortality rates, low birth rates, low life expectancy, and low fertility. There was a significant rural-to-urban and coastal migration, resulting in slower growth compared to other European countries.
Land Reform and the Confiscation Process
The nobility and clergy lived on leased land cultivated by others. Communal lands owned by municipalities were often unproductive. Church and municipal lands were referred to as "dead hands" because they could not be sold. Liberal politicians believed the best measure to end the old aristocratic regime was confiscation.
- The first confiscation (1836): During the Regency of Maria Cristina, lands belonging to religious orders were sold at low prices.
- The second confiscation (1855): During the Bienio Progresista, lands belonging to military and municipal orders were sold at public auctions.
As a result, land passed into the hands of bourgeois landowners. Farmers lost access to communal lands that served as their means of subsistence. However, the cultivated area increased, fertilizers were introduced, and productivity rose slightly. Additionally, the Mesta (1836), lordships, and the Diezmo (1837) were abolished.
Agricultural Expansion and the Railway
In the second half of the 19th century, the cultivation of grapes, citrus, rice, cereals, and irrigation grew, favored by the development of the railways. There was a great expansion of vineyards due to the phylloxera plague in France; however, when it reached Spain, it produced a crisis in the sector. Despite these changes, traditional cereal crops remained predominant.
The Delay of Spanish Industrialization
The industrial delay was due to the limited purchasing power of the population, protectionist measures, poor communications, weak commercial networks, and a lack of investment. The industry experienced an expansion from 1820 to 1850, followed by a crisis in the 1860s.
The Textile Industry
Innovation, capital, and labor initiatives established Catalonia as the center for the textile industry. Initially modeled after British industry, it later utilized water power, placing businesses along the Ter and Llobregat rivers. Protectionist measures ensured the survival and expansion of these companies.
The Steel Industry
The steel industry emerged first in Malaga (1831), then in Asturias (1840), and finally in the Basque Country (1841). Iron ore mining enabled the creation of shipyards; ships carried iron and returned with charcoal to reduce costs. The Basque industry eventually replaced soft iron with steel. Protectionist measures benefited the industry, as most of Spain consumed Basque steel. This led to the establishment of subsidiaries in chemical industries, shipbuilding, and heavy machinery.
Mining and Emerging Businesses
Mining companies were strengthened and exploited by foreign investors who purchased major mines following the Bases de Manresa (1868). Other emerging sectors included agri-food businesses, producing wine and oil, and chemical companies, which produced dyes, bleaches, and dynamite.