19th Century European Politics: Liberalism, Authoritarianism, and Imperial Expansion

Liberalism and Authoritarianism in 19th Century Europe

In the nineteenth century, the political situation in the European states was mixed. Britain and France moved slowly toward democracy, while other states maintained authoritarian political systems.

Consolidation of Liberalism in Britain and France

These nations gradually moved toward democracy through several key developments:

• Universal male suffrage was approved.
• Religious freedom and freedom of expression developed significantly.
• New political parties emerged.

The granting of suffrage to males caused major changes in political parties, allowing workers to vote. Parties began to develop modern political strategies. However, these countries could not yet claim genuine democracy for two main reasons:

• Women still lacked many rights. This led to the appearance of women's groups struggling to improve their conditions, notably the Suffragette movement.
• Widespread practice of electoral manipulation, where politicians attempted to control election results.

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the first social welfare measures were created, including unemployment benefits and pensions.

Authoritarian Political Systems

• Russia: The Tsar maintained strict absolutism. Serfdom existed until 1861. The Orthodox nobility and army officers monopolized political charges. The economy remained primarily agricultural, with very limited industrialization.
• Germany: After unification, the political system was not fully liberal. A constitution was approved that created a parliament elected by universal male suffrage, but executive power remained highly centralized. Germany did, however, develop advanced social policy.
• Austro-Hungarian Empire: Throughout the nineteenth century, the Emperor continued to control power, backed by the Catholic Church, the aristocracy, and the military. The empire began opening to liberalism in the early twentieth century, recognizing universal suffrage in 1906.

The Great Colonial Empires (1870–1914)

Between 1870 and 1914, great colonial empires were established. The British Empire was the largest, followed by the French. This expansion process caused significant friction and conflict between the major powers.

Process of Conquest

The colonial idea seemed abandoned in the early nineteenth century but resumed around 1830:

• England conquered India.
• France began the conquest of Algeria.

The process accelerated after 1870, leading to the division of continents among the powers. The Conference of Berlin (1884–1885) formalized how African territory was taken over by the major European states. By the early twentieth century, imperialist expansion was largely complete. Although Latin American nations achieved independence (e.g., Cuba in 1898), they often remained economically dependent on other countries.

Major Empires

The scale of the major empires was immense:

• The British Empire was the largest (33 million km² and 450 million people). Its moment of greatest glory coincided with the reign of Victoria I (1837–1901). India was its largest colony.
• The French Empire was the second power, extending over 10 million km² and encompassing 48 million people.
• Other countries held smaller empires: the Belgian Empire controlled the Congo; the German Empire held territories in southern Africa; and the Italian Empire occupied Tripoli, Eritrea, and Somalia.

There were also special cases of expansion:

• Russia completed its expansion into Siberia, forming a border with India.
• The U.S. occupied the Philippines and Puerto Rico and controlled Cuba.
• Japan annexed Korea and Formosa (Taiwan).

Clash of Imperialism

The scramble for colonies increased tensions between European powers. Germany, in particular, felt that its colonial rule did not correspond to the growing importance of the country on the world stage. Conflicts arose over territories like Morocco, which was administered by France and Spain.