Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Social sciences for University

The Group

A group is a set of two or more individuals in a common process of social interaction.

Types of Groups

• Category: A group of individuals who share certain characteristics that describe them as common (e.g., University of Madrid).
• Aggregate: A category of persons who share relations in the same space and time (e.g., University of UCJC).
• Functional: People who share a common objective or goal and are involved in an ongoing process of social relationships (e.g., students in the same class).

Ways to be Part of a Group

• Area: The individual's decision is not taken into account. It is decided for them (i.e., you do not choose your family or school).
• Acquisition: The subject decides to take part in it and is accepted by the group.

Characteristics of

Item 1: At birth, cities can concentrate political and economic power, enabling them to impose bans and punish non-compliance. In Greek cities, values of respect for the law and the constitution were paramount. The state maintained a balance of free men before the law, based on free will, not force. The ideal city-states allowed citizens to integrate and feel a sense of community. Life in a defined territory, along with participation, fostered a connection to the community's politics.

The city was a school of citizenship, teaching civilized living. The constitution of Cleisthenes was the fundamental law for male citizens of Athens. All citizens over 20 years old participated in the Assembly. Magistrates had high turnover, ensuring no citizen...

Organizational Characteristics of Primary Schools

1. Stages and Cycles:

• Primary education consists of three cycles, each spanning two academic years.
• These cycles are organized into areas with a global and integrative character.

2. Curriculum Areas:

• Knowledge of the Natural, Social, and Cultural Environment
• Artistic Education
• Physical Education
• Castilian Language and Literature (and, if applicable, the official regional language and literature)
• Foreign Language
• Mathematics

3. Additional Subjects:

• In one of the later courses, Education for Citizenship and Human Rights is added, with special emphasis on gender equality.

4. Second Foreign Language:

• In the third cycle, educational authorities may introduce a second foreign language.

5. Instrumental Areas:

• Areas

Action Research and Participatory Action Research

Research Action (AR)

*a. Value of the Researcher Investigated*

The researcher investigated breaks into a relationship of interest transformers. The research results are dumped on the other observed. The relationship between subject and another transformation is observed. Pragmatic perspective (subject to the other and vice versa observed causing a symmetrical relationship).

*b. Conception of the Object*

Observe to know, though differing in the method of study. Acting to know.

*c. Logic of Research*

Social Intervention

Participatory Action Research (PAR)

*a. Value of the Researcher Investigated*

Radical transformation in the way of investigating. Exchange of roles: The other device is observed synthesizer...

Core Environmental Concepts

The Environment Defined

The global system constituted by natural and artificial physical, chemical, or biological elements, sociocultural factors, and their interactions. It is constantly modified by human action or natural processes, and conditions the existence and development of life in its many manifestations.

Key Moments in Global Environmental Policy

Development of the Global Environmental Agenda

1. Washington Convention: Focused on protecting wildlife and the natural beauty of the Americas.
2. Stockholm Conference (1972): Focused on the human environment.
3. Brundtland Commission (1987): Defined the concept of sustainable development.
4. Rio de Janeiro Conference (1992): Focused on environment and development (UNCED).

Environmental

Adam Smith: Wealth of Nations and Division of Labor

Adam Smith's work surged in the 18th and 19th centuries. His seminal work, *The Wealth of Nations* (1776), explored the division of labor and its impact on society. Karl Marx drew from Smith, recognizing that specialization increases productivity but also simplifies the complexity of work, potentially leading to worker alienation. Smith was concerned about the inequality of work and argued that the state must intervene to prevent workers from reaching exclusion or self-marginalization.

Max Weber: Alienation, Legitimacy, and Ideal Types

Max Weber was aware of Marx and Smith but held different ideological views. He believed that alienation is a characteristic symptom of progress in modern societies....

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism is judging the world through one's own culture's parameters. It often involves believing one's race or ethnic group is superior. People using this ideology judge other groups based on their own culture, particularly regarding language, customs, behavior, religion, and beliefs—aspects that define cultural identity.

Subjectivity

Subjectivity has two meanings: referring to knowledge or the subject. In knowledge theory, subjectivity describes perceptions, arguments, and language based on a subject's viewpoint, influenced by their interests and desires. This contrasts with objectivity, which is inter-subjective, unbiased, and verifiable.

Authoritarianism

Authoritarianism is the extreme exercise of authority, lacking consensus...

Plan Pidal: A Landmark in Spanish Education

The Plan Pidal, enacted in 1857, marked a significant turning point in Spanish education. It introduced sweeping reforms aimed at modernizing and centralizing the education system.

Key Provisions of the Plan Pidal

• Secularization: The plan removed the influence of the Church from public education, ensuring freedom of teaching and learning.
• Centralization: It established a centralized administrative system, with the state overseeing all aspects of education.
• Improved Teacher Conditions: Teachers received better salaries and working conditions, and were required to pass state exams to qualify.
• Private Education: Private education was permitted at the secondary level, but not at the university level.

The Quintana

Foundations of Early Civilizations

Pastoralism is the domestication and herding of animals such as goats, sheep, and cattle. It emerged once humans established themselves in one place for extended periods, a process known as sedentism. The slash-and-burn technique, where ash from burned trees fertilized the soil, was another early agricultural method.

Defining Civilization and State

A civilization is a complex society characterized by agricultural surpluses, which enable specialized labor, social hierarchies, and the establishment of cities. Key markers include:

• Writing systems
• Developed religious systems
• Sophisticated architecture
• Centralized political power

A state is an organized community governed by a single political structure.

Societal Structures