Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Psychology and sociology for Secondary education

The discrimination refers to behaviors directed against another group. For example: Gender discrimination puts women at a disadvantage compared to men in various social situations. In the business market, women receive lower wages than men, for performing the same tasks and having the same qualifications, experience, and training. Women still do most of the housework and it is they who take care of the children and the elderly, so they have little time to look for new job opportunities. And even if they achieve leadership positions, they have to fight more than men to see their work being recognized and valued. Gender discrimination is only one of many forms of negative discrimination and constitutes a violation of human rights.

Social Psychology: Attitudes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Attitudes & Behavior: Attitudes affect interpretations of everyday events. An attitude is an overall evaluation of some aspects of the world.

Types of Attitudes

• Affective: Refers to your feelings about people, issues, and objects
• Behavioral: Refers to your predisposition to act in a particular way towards people, on an issue, or object
• Cognitive: Refers to what you believe or know about people, issues, or objects

Persuasion

Persuasion attempts to change people's attitudes in the hope of changing behavior. Attitudes can change based on experience or additional information. Persuasion can be achieved by two routes:

• Central: Paying close attention to the content of the argument
• Peripheral:

Understanding Race and Ethnicity in Society

Defining Race: A Social Construct

• A socially constructed category of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important.
• Scientists invented the concept of “race” in the nineteenth century and identified three racial types: Caucasoid, Negroid, and Mongoloid.

Racial Categories and Genetic Variation

• The three racial categories differ in only 6% of their genes, which is less than the genetic variation within each category.
• The Canadian census asks people to identify themselves as Aboriginal, Black, and Visible Minority.
• Many people have multiracial ancestry.

The Trend Toward Mixture and Multi-Ethnic Identities

• Over many generations and throughout the Americas, genetic

Major Depression in a Teenager

I will use psychotherapy which is frequently used in the treatment for childhood and adolescent depression. It helps people by helping them to understand the behavior and emotions that contribute to their issues and how to benefit from them, helping them to come out of the stress and mental blocks caused by traumatic events. The most important part is helping them to learn coping techniques and problem-solving skills. The advantages of this treatment are that there are fewer side effects, it develops skills to improve relationships, and it helps the patient to understand himself and his personal goals better. The most important disadvantages of this therapy are that it takes longer than drug therapy to produce...

Introduction to the Frankfurt School

The Institute for Social Research, the birthplace of the German Frankfurt School, was founded by Max Horkheimer. He was subsequently joined by Erich Fromm and Herbert Marcuse (who contributed concepts from Freudian psychoanalysis) and Theodor Adorno.

Origins and Exile (1922–1945)

After the Nazi Party came to power in Germany, the School was forced to relocate to the United States, finding refuge at Columbia University. Once in the United States, contact with the capitalist power par excellence decisively influenced the members of the School. This experience emphasized their criticism of the capitalist system, particularly concerning the alienation of the individual. The American stage of the Frankfurt School...

Social Problems Today

There are many social problems affecting people today. Here are some of the most pressing:

• Difficulties accessing housing: There is a shortage of rental housing, and prices are too high.
• Job insecurity: An abundance of "trash contracts" leads to unworthy working conditions.
• Loneliness: Many people feel alone. This sense of loneliness and emptiness leads some to fall into addiction.
• Individualism: There is a growing trend marked by its own interests, without taking others into account.
• Aggression and violence: This is a sad reality in our country.
• Anxiety: The level of stress we live with is also worrying.
• Discrimination: Those who are different from the majority have difficulty being included.

Poverty and Social Exclusion

The problems...

How to Improve Low Self-Esteem

1. Supportive Environment

• Show concern for personal problems, interests, status, and contributions.

2. Tailored Work

• Offer work that suits the employee's values, skills, and abilities.

3. Supervisor-Employee Cohesion

• Strive for supervisor-employee cohesiveness and build trust.

4. Self-Management

• Have faith in each employee's self-management ability.

Six Important Elements of Self-Esteem

1. Live Consciously

• Focus on everything you do and who you are doing it with.

2. Self-Acceptance

• Don't judge yourself on every action.

3. Personal Responsibility

• Take action and responsibility for your actions.

4. Self-Assertiveness

• Be original and positive.

5. Live Purposefully

6. Personal Integrity

• Have an honest personality.

The Big Five Personality

Market Research Methods

Qualitative Research

Active with current market demand: Potential, Latent.

Focus Groups

• Composition: 6 to 10 participants with knowledge of the topic, unknown to each other. Homogeneous or heterogeneous group composition.
• Duration: 1 to 3 hours.
• Method: Interview with a moderator using a script.
• Stimuli: Sheets, videos, etc.
• Number of sessions: Usually 4 or 5 meetings.
• Data Collection: Audio recorded and transcribed.

In-Depth Interviews

• Nature: Psychological, using open-ended questions.
• Objective: Discover motivations, beliefs, attitudes, feelings, etc.
• Duration: Varies from 30 minutes to over 1 hour.
• Number of interviews: Typically 40 to 100.
• Key Requirement: Establish a climate of trust between interviewer and interviewee.

Projective

Ethical Considerations in Psychological Research

One ethical consideration in psychological research is the use of deception. Deception occurs when a participant is not made fully aware of the purpose of a study or is intentionally misinformed. Researchers often use deception to hide the true aim of an experiment. If participants knew the aim, they might demonstrate demand characteristics, either trying to give the researchers what they want or behaving in a way that makes them look their best, a phenomenon known as the social desirability effect.

Deception is problematic because it undermines the concept of informed consent. It violates the trust between a researcher and a participant. Additionally, it increases the chance that a participant...

Expectancy Theory:

Expectancy Theory: is the idea that people's actions are driven by expected consequences. Behavior based on Vroom’s theory results from conscious choices to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. 1 Effort = Performance Relationship = Expectancy (Resources, Training or Supervision) 2 Performance = Outcome Relationship = Instrumentality (Promise must be fulfilled) 3 Outcome = Personal Goals Relationship = Valence (Money, Promotion, Benefits)

Equity Theory:

Equity Theory: is the idea that individuals are motivated by fairness. Negative and Positive Inequity feelings revolve around a person’s perception of rewards and inputs. People compare themselves with others on a similar level. Negative inequity is perceived if a comparison...