Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Psychology and sociology for Baccalaureate

Sensory Thresholds and Psychophysics

Sensory thresholds. Psychophysics studies the relationship between the physical nature of a stimulus and the sensory responses that occur in a person. Our ability to detect stimuli relies on different sensory thresholds:

• Absolute threshold: the minimum amount of stimulus we need to be aware of something and also the maximum amount of stimulation we can tolerate.
• Differential threshold: the difference in stimulus intensity needed to notice an increase or decrease prior to the stimulus.

Cognitive theory. Cognitive psychology researches how people process information and how these processes are represented in the world, and how these representations determine behavior. The terms feeling and perception are related...

Spiritual Materialism

The spiritual monist conception of human beings is the opposite of materialistic monism. According to spiritualists, also called idealists, all reality is mental. What we call matter is simply a creation of the mind. Thus, the human being is conceived as a mind that perceives itself as being. These beings, including their own bodies, only exist as perceptions of the mind. In Berkeley's philosophy, reality is to perceive or be perceived. It makes no sense to speak of the existence of the body or matter as independent of the mind because all we can say about material reality comes from our perception of it. This idealistic argument will be continued in the 19th century in the philosophy of Hegel.

Intermediate Monism

The Dutch...

What is Personality?

Personality is a combination of temperament and character in a single structure. It consists of a set of psychological characteristics that express themselves in all our actions.

• Temperament is our biological heritage, representing the influence of our encoded physical nature.
• Character refers to acquired characteristics developed through our growth and represents a degree of conformity with social norms.

Key Characteristics of Personality

1. It is not a physical entity.
2. It is the usual behavior of a person.
3. It is produced by the interaction of genetic inheritance, the environment, learning, and personal experience.
4. It develops and changes throughout life.
5. It is individual, social, and cultural.
6. Personal autonomy is the ability of individuals

Sociology: Key Concepts and Social Dynamics

Sociology is the science that studies, describes, and analyzes the processes of life in society. Its object of study is human beings and their social relations within human societies.

Objectives of Sociology

• To acquire an overview of all topics related to this discipline.
• To facilitate the student's analysis of the social dimensions of education.
• Understanding of society.
• Familiarization of students with the method of sociological social processes.
• Knowledge of how social influences operate in the classroom.
• Formation of a critical attitude towards the social influences of education.

Key Sociological Concepts

The Family as an Institution: Area of identity, sexuality area, economic area, and ego-strengthening...

Social Harmony and Disharmony

In humans, two opposing trends coexist: the inclination to live with and alongside others, but also the confrontation and opposition to others. Both phenomena are due to a rather special characteristic of human beings: in the words of Kant, their unsocial sociability. The human being is essentially sociable, needing and wanting the company and recognition of others; yet, on the other hand, lives in fear of being swallowed, hence the need for individuation. Closely related to this desire is the need for privacy and solitude.

These trends coexist in most societies in a balanced and stable manner. The tendency of every human being to assert individuality and, at times, to oppose others and society at large, contributes...

Humanistic theory C. Rogers developed a humanistic psychology whose primary purpose was to understand and improve personalidad.Reconoció that person's conduct is conditioned by:-The constitution biological-social forces, "Past experiences. But also defended personal liberty: In the theory of C. Rogers is crucial concept: Self: the configuration is consistent organized perceptions, values and ideals that form the image. The personality assessment is the description and measure individual characteristics. It has several methods of personality assessment: 1. Direct observation is to collect and record information in a systematic and structured, the occurrence and duration of spontaneous behaviors of some people 2. Clinical Interview: A method...

Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism is an attitude that considers one's own culture to be correct, rational, and useful, while viewing others as invalid or inferior. It elevates the self and rejects the alien. This perspective is often accidental rather than essential, manifesting in forms such as ethnocentric nationalism, racism, and xenophobia.

Cultural Relativism

Rooted in the philosophy of Protagoras of Abdera (5th century BC), cultural relativism posits that all cultures are valid. It is the extreme opposite orientation to ethnocentrism. A significant drawback is the difficulty in choosing practices from one culture over another when they hold opposing values.

As Jesus Mosterin notes, both ethnocentrism and relativism...

Freud's Economic Theory of Psychoanalysis

Freud's economic theory of psychoanalysis posits that psychic energy increases, decreases, moves, or is released and distributed throughout the human psyche, activating its different processes.

Freud's Drive Theory of Psychoanalysis

Freud used the term "drive" to refer to instinctual impulses. These drives are characterized by:

• Source: A bodily organ that produces a drive through an active process. Different sources give rise to different impulses. (Unintegrated impulses manifest in adult subjects as perversions).
• Drive Peremptory: An energetic and motor factor of variable intensity that pushes the body toward satisfaction, which the subject cannot avoid. Its character is psychological rather than biological.

Functional Anatomy of the Cerebral Cortex

The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes, which are named after the cranial bones that are closest and are: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. In the prefrontal areas, distinctions can be made between those related to the processing of sensory information as well as motor commands. These areas are called primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the level of information processing.

Localization of Cognitive Functions

Cognitive functions are localized in specific areas of the brain. However, this does not mean that cognitive function is mediated solely by a single region of the brain; it is more correct to say that certain areas are more involved than others in developing a type of function....

Significat de Persona segons Ciceró

Ciceró defineix el terme "persona" de diverses maneres:

• La que es mostra als altres (màscara).
• El paper que es juga a la vida social (rol com a actor).
• El conjunt de qualitats personals que capaciten per a una tasca (qualitats psicològiques internes).
• El prestigi i la dignitat.

Caràcter

És el conjunt de preocupacions ètiques amb el desig de fer o deixar de fer coses sota regles establertes socialment. Per tant, és l'adherència de la persona als valors i costums de la societat en què viu.

Temperament

S'ha entès com l'herència biològica rebuda. Segons Millon, es descriu com: "El material biològic des del qual finalment emergeix la personalitat". La conjunció del temperament i el caràcter forma l'estructura...