Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Baccalaureate

Some authors argue that the reconstruction of urban life had its origin in the desire for peace that brought about the formation of communal bonds. This urban renaissance provided a great service to royalty. Cities offered loyalty to the king. The resurgence of cities initiated intense intellectual work, which greatly benefited monarchs. The bourgeoisie became an indispensable support for the king when threatened from outside.

Cultural Flourishing and Intellectual Growth

An urban culture developed, marked by the emergence of universities and important institutions. These sought to control cultural anarchy and defended their autonomous operation, governed by their own statutes and regulations, often with a dependence on the Pope. They promoted...

Ortega's Philosophy: Understanding Life Through Reason

Ortega's philosophy is an attempt to understand life through reason. For him, philosophy is not merely an end, but a useful intellectual need to understand the 'why' of reality. It embodies a rebellious, nonconformist attitude, questioning what is 'given' and seeking its underlying causes. Its key features include: the imperative of autonomy, the principle of pantonomy, and theoretical knowledge achieved through expressible rational inquiry. This ontological task seeks essential truth through reason.

Critique of Past Philosophy: The Radical Reality of Life

The error of philosophy in the past, according to Ortega, lies in its inability to truly understand life. Realism erred by considering...

The Tree of Knowledge: A Story of Frustration

The Tree of Knowledge is the story of a frustration. Andrés Hurtado, its protagonist, seeks an explanation for an absurd and unjust reality. It is not mere intellectual curiosity that drives him, but the need to obtain some "practical truths" with which to conduct himself in life.

Reason vs. Life: An Irreconcilable Struggle

The attempt fails because the approach is too radical; reason and life are seen as irreconcilable principles. In the struggle between the tree of knowledge and the tree of life, Andrés will give in to the latter, which shows itself to be strong and indomitable. Life, as a "blind force" that is opposed to reason, is a "turbulent flow" which carries the individual with its impetus,...

Contemporary Philosophy: The 19th Century Context

Contemporary philosophy extends from the early 19th century to the present day. The most visible feature of this period is the lack of unity in its problems and approaches. Therefore, one cannot speak of a unified vision for this stage of philosophy, as the variety and disparity of interests and philosophical movements, motivated by profound and rapid societal changes, became its only common characteristic.

This article focuses on the 19th century. While historically known as the century of revolutions, from a philosophical perspective, the 19th century is defined by the rise of idealism and the subsequent reactions against it.

This period of philosophy can be broadly divided into two main stages:...

Thomas Aquinas' Five Ways to God's Existence

Thomas Aquinas' demonstrations of the existence of God, famously known as "The Five Ways" (Quinque Viae), have profoundly influenced philosophical and theological thought. Aquinas deemed it necessary to prove God's existence because it is not immediately obvious to human reason. He asserted that such a demonstration is possible by observing the sensible world around us.

Aquinas did not accept the ontological argument proposed by Anselm of Canterbury, which relies solely on a priori reasoning and dispenses with empirical experience. While "The Five Ways" are presented as five distinct arguments in the Summa Theologica, only four appear in the Summa Contra Gentiles. The exact number, however, is less...

Nietzsche's Critique of Western Civilization

Nietzsche's philosophy is a profound critique of Western culture, specifically targeting its metaphysics, morality, and Christianity.

The Decadence of Culture: Socrates and Plato

Nietzsche argued that cultural decadence began with Socrates, who imposed the Apollonian (reason) over the Dionysian (instincts), thereby disrupting an essential balance. Plato further contributed to this decline by positing a perfect, immutable 'true reality,' fearing the ever-changing sensible world.

Challenging Metaphysics and Reality

Regarding metaphysics, Nietzsche contended that concepts traditionally considered unique and immutable, representing true reality, are merely 'empty shells.' He believed such fixed concepts cannot...

The 13th Century: A Historical and Intellectual Apogee

The historical framework for the thought of Thomas Aquinas is the 13th century, an era within the Middle Ages, a period spanning from the mid-11th century to the late 15th century. Following several centuries characterized by rigid social structures and material limitations, known as the "Dark Ages" (until the 11th century), Europe reached its apogee in the 13th century.

This century was the stage for the renewed struggle between the Emperor and the Pope, a conflict that resulted in the triumph of the papacy (papal theocracy). It was also a golden age for:

• Theology and scholastic philosophy
• The consolidation of municipalities and the bourgeoisie
• The emergence of universities
• The rise of mendicant

Understanding Rationalism

Insecure, if not a lifelong dream and the world a stage, as Shakespeare says.

Types of Modern Rationalism

There are three types of modern rationalism:

• Psychological Rationalism: Reason is equated with thinking over emotion and will.
• Metaphysical Rationalism: Reality possesses a rational character.
• Epistemological Rationalism: Reason is the only appropriate source and means of knowledge. This idea stems from two key assumptions:
  • Our knowledge can be constructed deductively from clear ideas and principles.
  • These ideas and principles are innate to the understanding, possessed independently of any sensory experience.

Characteristics of Rationalism (16th-18th Centuries)

Rationalism, as a specific school of thought that developed...

Descartes: The Father of Modernism

NEWS: René Descartes is considered the father of modernism. Modern thought is characterized by recovering the autonomy of reason against faith. His rationalism was an attempt to regain the lost confidence in the effectiveness of our knowledge, to reassess the "thinking self" or "human subject" in the face of reality.

The Cartesian System and the Thinking Self

The Cartesian system suggests we can attain clear and distinct truths (i.e., "true" knowledge). As we know, this overconfidence led Descartes to use reason to rationally prove God's existence. So much so that many of his arguments recall Saint Augustine.

On the other hand, "Cogito, ergo sum" is one of the most significant statements in the history of thought....

Hume's Critique of Causality

The Empirical Basis of Causality

Hume's analysis of causality stems from empirical observation. He argues that causality is a relationship established by the mind, based on the psychological mechanisms of habit and custom. Repeated experiences create habits, which in turn form our beliefs about the future. We expect events to repeat in the future based on past occurrences due to habit.

Causality and A Priori Knowledge

Hume asserts that causal relationships cannot be known a priori. Reasoning alone, without experience, cannot reveal cause-and-effect relationships. For example, analyzing the concept of 'fire' doesn't inherently include the notion of 'pain'. Causal relationships are not between ideas; our knowledge...