Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Baccalaureate

Mastering Essential English Vocabulary for Work

Key Definitions and Terms

• To Earn Money: To receive payment in return for one’s labor or service; to deserve compensation.
• Teamwork: Collaborative effort where individuals work together for the profit or benefit of the group (e.g., group projects).
• To Make a Profit: To achieve good results or earn money by engaging in a specific activity or business.
• To Pack: To put clothes and necessary items into suitcases, typically before a trip.
• To Deliver: To take something (such as letters, pizza, or messages) to a specific location.
• To Dare: To not feel afraid of doing something. Example: If your parents are very strict, you might not dare to come home late.
• To Guarantee: To assure that something is certain;

Solidarism and the Enforcement of International Rule

The classical English School scholar, Hedley Bull, defined solidarism as the collective enforcement of international rules and the guardianship of human rights. Solidarism is driven by states for the purpose and interests of the people they serve.

In a solidarist order, individuals possess basic rights (e.g., not to be killed or harmed). If harm is being undertaken and the state is unable to prevent it, solidarist theory holds that the members of the international society have a duty to intervene.

The Challenge of Humanitarian Intervention in the UN Order

Within the UN framework, the primary problem regarding humanitarian intervention was not the danger that external powers showed no regard for...

Contractual Capacity

Individuals Lacking Capacity

• Minors (under 18 years of age)
• Individuals suffering from a mental disability
• Individuals who are intoxicated

Misrepresentation in Contracts

Types of Misrepresentation

• Fraudulent Misrepresentation
• Innocent Misrepresentation
• Negligent Misrepresentation

Proving Duress

Elements of Duress

• Demonstrate that illegitimate means were used.
• The illegitimate means used were a reason for entering the contract.
• The evidence presented is honest and accepted.

Undue Influence

Presumed Special Relationships

• Parent/Child
• Guardian/Ward
• Doctor/Patient

Discharge of Contracts

Primary Methods of Contract Discharge

• By Performance
• By Agreement
• By Frustration
• By Breach

Discharge by Agreement Methods

• Mutual Discharge
• Release
• Waiver
• Substitution

Recovering

Unit 0: Relationships and Dating

Phrasal Verbs

• Let down: decepcionar
• Chat up: intentar ligar
• Ask out: invitar a salir
• Get over: olvidar
• Go out: salir
• Split up: romper

Other Vocabulary

• Verb: Date (salir con)
• Nouns: Date (cita), Match (pareja), Guy (tío)
• Adjectives: Cute (rico), Kind (amable), Reliable (de fiar), Sporty (deportista)

Time Expressions and Sequencing

First, then, next, afterwards, the next day, when, while, finally.

Unit 1: Daily Life and Housing

Key Vocabulary

• Verbs: Anxious (eager), Prove (demonstrate), Succeeded (achieved something), Boil (heat water to 100°C), Respect (have a good opinion of), Surround (rodear)
• Nouns: Celebrity (a well-known person), Commuter (someone who travels to a city every day to work), Desert (desierto), Flat (piso)

Plato's Dialectics: A Path to the World of Ideas

Dialectics, the superior form of knowledge, refers to the World of Ideas, to the immutable, universal, and eternal. It is identified with philosophy itself. Plato conceived dialectics in two ways: firstly, as a rational method that uses no sensible signs, employing only reason. It rests on "assumptions" but attempts to dispense with any recourse to the senses. Philosophy, which is synonymous with dialectics, is a more reflective knowledge, one that leaves no question without examination or assessment. The goal of dialectics is to discover the relationships between ideas and to seek the ultimate foundation of all: the Idea of the Good. True philosophy is "an ascent to being": the philosopher must...

Texts

According to Hobbes

Theme

The need for the state to establish order among humans.

Auxiliary Idea

End state.

Terms

• State: Characterized by the instrument that holds political power, it can be defined as an association of a complex type. Within a given territory, it successfully monopolizes legitimate violence as an instrument of domination.
• War: The result of the natural passions of men when there is no visible power to keep them in fear, and the threat of punishment to force them to comply with covenants and observe the laws of nature.

Do I need the state? Why? The state guarantees peace, order, and security.

According to Marx

Topic

Comparison of a capitalist state with a state of slavery.

Auxiliary Idea

The basis for the rule of seniority was slavery;...

Argument

An argument is offered from the subjective viewpoint of an issuer on a topic. Its purpose is to influence and convince the receiver of the validity of its reasoning, thus dominating the conative or appellative function.

To persuade the receiver, the sender selects arguments, reasons, and evidence supporting their opinion. Objections to opposing arguments, called counterarguments, can also be used.

Elements and Structure of Argumentative Text

Argumentative texts have a logical and orderly structure. They are organized around a main idea developed in the body of the argument and end with a conclusion.

• Thesis

  It is the main idea around which the text is organized. The location of the thesis determines the structure of the argumentative text.

Kant's Distinctions: Phenomenon and Noumenon

Kant presented in detail the distinction between phenomenon and noumenon, and on the other hand, the distinction between knowing and thinking.

1. Only phenomena we know, what appears to us in sensible intuition:
   1. Our knowledge of phenomena is the result of a double synthesis: the first level of sensitivity between the data of experience (sensory impressions) and the a priori forms of sensibility: Space and Time; the second between the spatially and temporally organized data and understanding, the concepts or categories.
2. Our theoretical knowledge is limited to objects of experience, to what is shown to us, so that any application of the categories to that of which I have no experience does not produce knowledge.

Corporate Financial Distress: Key Concepts

Understanding Insolvency Proceedings (Bankruptcy)

The term bankruptcy refers to the legal process initiated when a person or entity enters a state of insolvency, meaning they cannot cope with all payments due. This single administrative procedure covers situations of both temporary default (suspension of payments) and final liquidation.

Suspension of Payments (Default)

Definition of Suspension of Payments

Suspension of payments occurs when the company, despite having sufficient assets to cover all its debts, is unable to pay them upon maturity due to a temporary lack of liquidity.

Financial Indicators (Illustrative):

• Current Liabilities > Real Assets
• Current Assets > Total Liabilities

Process for Suspension

Wittgenstein's Philosophy: Language and Ethics

The Role of Philosophy in the *Tractatus* and *Philosophical Investigations*

According to Wittgenstein, philosophy encourages the clarification of propositions and aims to avoid misleading forms of common language. It is not a science; philosophical propositions, being meaningless, are created by the misunderstanding of language. The method is to "say nothing except what can be said, and whenever someone would say something metaphysical, to demonstrate that he has not given meaning to certain signs." These statements are meaningless as they attempt to exceed the limits of language and the world, and nothing can be said about the world in its entirety. Silence on this field sets the stage for the...