Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Baccalaureate

Utilitarianism: Principles and Human Dignity

Bernard Williams on Utilitarianism

Bernard Williams, in his Introduction to Ethics (pp. 95-110), states that utilitarianism, as an ethical school of thought, has four characteristics:

• Utilitarianism of the Act and Utilitarianism of the Rule
  • 1. Utilitarianism of the Act: This involves a calculation of what course of action will maximize pleasure or happiness in each specific case or circumstance, without following a priori rules. Every action has consequences, and these consequences are what allow us to judge its value. Utilitarianism of the act is associated with Bentham.
  • 2. Utilitarianism of the Rule: This is an attempt to universalize criteria, and it is based on the utilitarian standard of "maximum

Hume's Critique of the Idea of Substance

We must ask what impression derives from this idea? We cannot assign any impression to this idea. It has no reality, as the limits of our knowledge are the impressions themselves. Hume is therefore eliminating innate ideas and rejecting abstract ideas.

Impressions are always those that precede and supply the whole idea. Imagination makes its first appearance in a previous appearance. Therefore, the idea of substance can only come from our imagination, not derived from any sensitive impression.

Hume argues that the idea of substance is merely a collection of simple qualities to which we apply a particular name to remember them. This does not mean that substance is a surviving entity or a metaphysical concept....

Freedom of the Will in Kantian Philosophy

For Kant, freedom is one of the defining qualities of the human being. As articulated in the Critique of Practical Reason, it is one of the fundamental principles necessary to establish morality. If human beings were not free, it would not be possible to speak of moral or immoral behavior.

Only those who can act freely are responsible, transcending sensible inclinations which, as such, are subject to the inexorable laws of nature. For Kant, freedom is the human capacity to decide, taking into account the rational dimension. The central question Kant addresses (in this work and generally) is precisely whether human freedom is compatible with the idea of necessity governing history, thus combining necessity...

Immanuel Kant: Synthesizing Knowledge and Ethics

Immanuel Kant was an eighteenth-century German philosopher who lived during the Enlightenment. Kant attempted a synthesis between rationalism and empiricism, offering a new way of interpreting human knowledge. He sought to answer the question: "Is metaphysics possible as a science?" and to analyze existing ethics to create his own.

Critique of Pre-Kantian Ethical Systems

Kant analyzed ethics preceding his time, determining that these were theological, teleological, or materialist, because they prescribed actions based on desired outcomes. This is because any theological ethics is based on the idea that there are good things for human beings and therefore begins to consider what the highest good...

What is Knowledge?

Knowledge is justified true belief. To apply the theoretical rationale, the knowledge obtained has the following features:

• Knowledge implies conviction. States of doubt or ignorance do not correspond to those of knowledge. Knowledge requires certainty that ensures safety and having good reason to believe something.
• Knowledge is a belief.
• Knowledge is true. If we believe in something that is false, it cannot be ascertained.
• Knowledge is justified. A belief held without good reasons cannot be considered knowledge.

Attitudes Towards Knowledge

• Ignorance: When it is unknown whether a statement is true or false.
• Doubt: If one is not totally convinced of something.
• Conviction: When one is certain of something.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking...

Evolution Theories: A Comparative Analysis

Lamarckism: Can be summarized in two principles:

• The function makes the organ: Life forms adapt to the environment because they live just for the sake of survival.
• Inheritance of acquired characters: Transformations are passed from one generation to another. Lamarck believed that the inner desires of living beings are the main cause of all evolutionary processes.

Darwin's Theory: Can be summarized in two principles:

• Dislocated survival: Results from the competition for space and distributed food.
• Natural selection: Those best suited survive in the environment. Darwin defended that natural selection acts through inherited changes as a principle of evolution.

Synthetic Theory: It is based on two principles:...

Epistemology: Understanding the Nature of Knowledge

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the analysis of what knowledge is. It also determines its origin, the method we follow to obtain it, and what we know. Interest in knowledge has been constant throughout the history of thought. However, this issue became even more important, and epistemology stepped into the center of philosophical reflection. This was due to two reasons:

• The importance of the natural sciences: Physics reached, with Isaac Newton, its maturity as a science. Success and encouraging progress prompted epistemological analysis of this type of knowledge, in order to determine what made possible its effectiveness and infallibility.
• Awareness of its basic dimensions:

Plato's Life and Political Context (427-347 BC)

Plato (427-347 BC) was born into an aristocratic family and was initially interested in politics. His philosophical development was significantly influenced by the political turmoil of his time.

The Rise and Fall of Athenian Democracy

After periods of aristocracy and attempts at reform, followed by tyranny, democracy emerged in Athens. This democracy began with the reforms of Cleisthenes, which included:

• Isonomy: All men are equal before the law.
• Isegoria: All men are entitled to speak in the Assembly.
• Ostracism: Exile by vote for any citizen who might become a tyrant.

The Persian Wars and the Golden Age of Pericles

The Medical Wars, where the Greeks faced the Persians, were a pivotal moment. The Greek...

Plato's Core Philosophical Concepts

Plato's teacher, Socrates, is often presented as the protagonist through whom Plato conveys his ideas. Cratylus was Plato's first teacher.

The Good: Supreme Reality and Purpose

The Good is the supreme reality, the cause and origin of everything.

The Good as Supreme Reality

In the Myth of the Cave, the Good is compared to the sun, illuminating the origin of everything visible in the tangible world.

Purpose and Attraction

All beings seek perfection; the Good draws all things towards itself.

Supreme Object of Knowledge

Knowledge ascends from the sensible to the intelligible. Thus, the knowledge of the Ideas, especially the Good, is the ultimate object of science, as our intellect seeks the permanent rather than the variable....

Platonic Vocabulary: Essential Concepts

Soul

The soul, *imprisoned* in a material body. Plato identifies three parts of the soul:

• Rational (Logistikon): Associated with *prudence* or wisdom.
• Spirited (Thymoeides): Associated with *fortitude* or courage.
• Appetitive (Epithymetikon): Associated with *temperance* or moderation.

Science (Episteme)

Knowledge of the most universal and immutable truths. Plato distinguishes two types of cognition: *Science* and *Opinion*.

Knowledge

The kind of intellectual vision that perceives the *Idea* or *Form*.

Belief (Pistis)

A degree of *opinion* based on the direct perception of sensible things.

Dialectic

A rigorous science and method of philosophical inquiry. It involves counterposing arguments to overcome contradictions...