Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Baccalaureate

A Historical and Cultural Perspective of Philosophy II: Renaissance

Classical authors of Greco-Roman culture were explored and studied. During the 17th century, philosophers focused their interest on questions related to our knowledge of reality. During this period, two important branches of philosophy emerged: Rationalism (Descartes' innate ideas res cognition vs res extensa) and Empiricism (Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume) - our knowledge is originated in the sensorial information. There is no knowledge of any other kind. During the Enlightenment (18th century), philosophy believed that society must be improved. Philosophers argued that this improvement of society would be achieved by educating the population and cultivating free thought (Rousseau,...

Philosophy vs. Science: A Fundamental Distinction

Science is the systematic study and understanding of natural or social phenomena. It is fundamentally concerned with empirical data—information that can be observed, tested, and repeated. A specific course of action, known as the scientific method, guides scientific inquiry.

The Historical Divergence of Science from Philosophy

Science originally started as a part of philosophy, known as natural philosophy. However, science significantly deviated from philosophy in the 17th century. When discussing science today, we typically consider three main branches: natural science, social science, and formal science.

Classification of Scientific Disciplines

Scientific disciplines are broadly classified into...

Utilitarianism - Mill

• Why intentions/duty/inclination don't really matter (for Utilitarianism):

To utilitarians, intentions don't matter because when looking at a situation you need to strip away the intentions so that you can look at the act alone as good or bad

• Explain why happiness/pleasure is the desired goal of morality in Utilitarianism

Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote overall human happiness

• The relationship between virtue and disinterestedness

Virtue can still be desired but should be desired disinterestedly (so basically not gaining virtue for your own benefit)

Deontology - Kant

• Principle of volition

A principle that governs any rational will

• Why/how consequences aren't the deciding factor for ethical goodness

Deontology...

English Grammar: Conjunctions, Transitions, and Prepositions

Conjunctions (Clause Connectors)

• Because, as, since: Introduce a cause.
  • Example: Because it was raining, I stayed at home.
• So: Introduces an effect.
  • Example: It was raining, so I stayed at home.

Transitions (Sentence Connectors)

• Therefore, consequently, as a result: Introduce an effect, connecting two complete sentences.
  • Example: It was raining; therefore, I stayed home.

Prepositions (Noun Phrase Connectors)

• Due to, because of, as a result of: Introduce a cause in the form of a noun phrase.
  • Example: I stayed at home due to the rain.
  • Example: Because of the rain, I stayed at home.

Expressing Result and Reason

Understanding how different connectors express cause (reason) or effect (result) is crucial...

A human action can be considered as a moral action whether it has the following characteristics:

1. It is done by adjusting to a code or a set of moral rules and values. These rules and values designate what should be considered as morally good or bad, advisable or inadvisable, etc. In the next section we will study what the moral values and rules are.
2. This moral code should not be imposed by the society to the people, but each individual must be free to choose it. For example, I must be free to choose whether or not euthanasia is something acceptable from a moral point of view. For this reason, morality is above all an individual matter related to the autonomy of each person.
3. Being free when acting is something extremely important when assessing

Deductive Method

This method consists in going from general statements to particular statements. From some general judgments or definitions, individual conclusions, that are the necessary consequence of the first, are deduced.

The consistency and validity of this method is unquestionable: if the premises are true, the conclusion will be true as well.

This method is characteristic of formal sciences, although in empirical sciences it is also used in the first part of the investigation, when it is necessary to formulate hypotheses. This method is only feasible and sufficient in the formal sciences. For that reason, it is considered an inadequate method because, although it is useful to construct valid arguments,

Inductive Method

This method starts...

Essential Vocabulary for Everyday English Communication

Money and Shopping

• Bargains: Something cheap.
• Browsing: Looking around in a shop, comparing prices.
• Can't afford: Can't pay for it.
• Clubbed together: Saving money with someone.
• Designer label: Exclusive named brand.
• Economical with the truth: Not the whole truth.
• Fork out: Spend a lot of money on something.
• Help themselves: To take as much as they wanted.
• Overdrawn: With no money.
• Redundancies: Firing employees.
• Splash out: Spend an extravagant sum of money.
• Stingy: Unwilling to give or spend; not generous.
• Tax havens: Not paying taxes.

Media and Communication

• Billboard: A big publicity advertisement.
• Biased: Favorable to some ideas.
• Broadcast: Emit on mass media.
• Censorship: Not being able to express yourself.

Historical Context

René Descartes' life unfolded primarily in the first part of the 17th century. The 16th century witnessed the fragmentation of religious unity in Europe due to the Protestant Reformation, challenging the long-held ideal of a united Europe under the Christian faith.

Socio-politically, France, Holland, and England emerged as economic centers. Absolute monarchy spread across Europe. The Spanish bourgeoisie faced economic ruin, while nobility and clergy remained the primary landowners. England experienced two revolutions and a civil war. Europe engaged in colonial ventures driven by mercantilist principles. The growth of trade empowered the bourgeoisie, leading to the breakdown of the Ancien Régime. This era marked the height...

Platonic Political Theory: The Ideal State

In The Republic, Plato outlined his conception of the social and political ideal. Based on a critique of unsatisfactory definitions of justice, Plato proposes an analysis of what constitutes fairness in both the individual and the city-state, aiming to achieve a satisfactory definition of justice. He argues that the city-state emerges to satisfy humanity's complex needs, as no individual can be self-sufficient. The division of labor is thus the basis of all civilization. Basic human needs—food, housing, and clothing—necessitate the existence of farmers and artisans. Trade and money then emerge, along with other societal needs. This context frames the central focus of The Republic: the political...

Plato's Theory of Ideas

The Theory of Ideas is the foundational element of Platonic philosophy. In essence, it defends the existence of the absolute, which stands in opposition to the corporeal, mortal, and relative world.

Unlike personal thought, the absolute that Plato refers to is impersonal. Plato maintained that reality is divided into two main realms: the Sensible World and the Intelligible World, or World of Ideas. The absolute he refers to is precisely that realm of reality. The Sensible World is the set of entities accessible to the senses—realities that are changing, multiple, born, and die—and are captured through the senses. The Intelligible World, or World of Ideas, is populated by entities that are absolute, universal, independent,...