Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Baccalaureate

Argumentative Texts: Key Features

An argumentative text advocates an idea through the presentation of reasons, aiming to convince the recipient. Key characteristics include:

• Subjectivity: The author expresses their vision of the subject from their own point of view.
• Thematic Issue: Commonly discusses political issues, politics, religion, or education.
• Persuasion: Attempts to convince the intended recipient through data and information that is as complete as possible.
• Clarity and Order: Essential for the arguments to be understood.

Argumentative structures:

• Deductive Structure: Presents a general thesis and attempts to show particular arguments.
• Inductive Structure: Goes from the particular to the general main idea.

The Claim

It is an argumentative text...

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Marxist Philosophy: Transforming the World

Marx's philosophy posits the social element and material conditions as the constitution of reality, denouncing the existing social order as unfinished. He argues that humanity currently resides in its prehistory, and our task is to jump into history. This requires the overthrow of the existing social (natural) order. Marx's philosophy is fundamentally thought designed to transform the world, unlike the purely theoretical approach of philosophers like Feuerbach, with whom he otherwise agrees.

Dialectical Materialism and the Role of Labor

Marx inherited the dialectical method from Hegel—the process of evolution through affirmation and negation leading to a synthesis. For Marx, however, the only reality...

Ethics

Ethics is an edge. Practicing it involves trafficking in human rights at the individual level.

Right is a capacity that humans have to freely choose between different possibilities, knowing the truth of something.

Freedom is a value that is synonymous with thinking and acting independently of any coercion. Freedom always supposes responsibility.

Disclaimer: This is a mean value of what we know to respond freely.

Morality: We have a set of rules that humans use to regulate their behavior and form their personality. For example: Friendship.

• Theoretical reason: "Things are like this" -> Science
• Practical reason: To make things sound! -> Ethics

Ethics: Interested in acts done by a subject with morality.

Values

Values are qualities that people...

Hume's Moral Philosophy: Feelings, Empathy, and Reason

For Hume, freedom is the power to act or not, according to the determinations of the will. The moral distinction lies between virtuous action (morally approved of) and vicious action (not morally approved of). This approval does not come from internal impressions or innate nature. Instead, it stems from feelings and emotions, as nature only provides facts, and moral valuations require more than just pure facts.

Hume distinguishes two types of feelings:

• The Direct: These are tendencies that spontaneously evoke feelings of pain or pleasure in certain situations.
• The Indirect: These arise from thought, stemming from an idea developed from an external impression. This reflection is caused by passion.

Characteristics of the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic Cosmovision

Organicism:

• The Universe is like a living organism.
• Each part of the Universe serves a function.

Anthropocentrism:

• The geocentric quality of this cosmovision is a form of anthropocentrism.
• The Earth, the place in which human beings live, is at the center of the Universe.

Finalism:

• All natural changes have a "final cause", i.e., an ultimate objective. The changes pursue this objective.

Heterogeneity:

• The Aristotelian cosmos is not a "universe" but a "diverse": it has diverse regions.

Philosophical Positions on the Existence of God

• Theism: Affirms the existence of a personal, supernatural, and transcendental God. God is not just the cause of reality, He also governs it.
• Deism: Affirms that God exists

active:

The Biological Dimension of the Human Being

Non-Evolutionist Theories

Creationism

This theory asserts that the world and all living things were created by God from nothingness. This theory is the basis of many religious doctrines, not only of Christianity.

1. All living species were created separately by God from nothingness in the beginning of times. So they are not related nor derive ones from others.
2. God created mankind in his own image. So the human being plays a special role in the divine creation.

Fixism

Pseudo-scientific theory formulated by Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) which states that species, both plant and animal, do not evolve, but remain unchanged in time. To explain the fact, as evidenced by the fossils, of the disappearance of certain species...

René Descartes (1596-1650)

Baroque Philosopher

Inventor of the Cartesian project, which examines the structure and functioning of reason through four steps:

• Intuition: Clear and evident self-knowledge.
• Deduction: Argumentative chain leading to a conclusion.
• Analysis: Breaking a whole into parts.
• Summary: Recomposition of the essential.

Descartes employs methodic doubt with three parts:

• The fallacy of the senses: Sensory world is uncertain.
• Inability to distinguish waking from sleep: No definitive proof of wakefulness.
• Evil spirit: Doubt even in mathematics.

Descartes' first truth: "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am), proving the Cogitans (mental side). Criterion of validity: Truths must be clear and distinct.

Ideas are divided into:

• Adventitious: