Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Baccalaureate

Social Darwinism

Social Darwinism is the false idea that nature legitimises the oppression of the socially weaker by the stronger. It is based on the Darwinian theory of evolution, which states that the fittest individuals survive and reproduce. However, Social Darwinism ignores the fact that humans are not simply animals, and that we have developed moral and ethical values that prevent us from acting in a purely selfish manner.

The Role of Aggression and Violence in the Evolution of Species

Aggression among members of the same species is fundamental for the conservation of the species. For example, fighting between rivals helps to determine who is the strongest and most fit to reproduce. In the case of humans, aggression has also played a role...

The Platonic Conception of Ideas

For Plato, ideas are substantial in nature. Ideas are not produced by independent thought and do not arise from things. Ideas are independent because they have semantic consistency; that is, they have their own meaning no matter what we decide, and when someone knows an idea, it is called the same (because the thought when he sees it is the same), and universal ideas do not arise from particular things.

For Plato, the world is full of thinking beings and things, but as ideas do not come from them, the ideas have to be in another world. He says that in the sensible world, things are finite, mutable, unintelligible, and individual, and this is where we are. While in the world of ideas, things are infinite, immutable,...

Plato's Republic: Building the Just City (367e-376e)

Socrates proposes investigating social justice and individual justice by witnessing the spectacle of a city's birth, observing how justice and injustice might arise within it.

The Necessary City: Meeting Basic Needs

The city originates from the lack of individual self-sufficiency. To meet basic needs—food, shelter, and clothing—the city will require:

• Farmers
• Masons
• Weavers
• Shoemakers

The different natural abilities of individuals suggest applying the principle of functional specialization to increase productivity and improve product quality. To provide tools and materials, the city will also need carpenters, blacksmiths, cattlemen, and shepherds. Lack of self-sufficiency will necessitate traders...

MAIN LINES OF THOUGHT OF HUME

Empiricism

Hume is the most representative philosopher of this movement, which posits that all knowledge comes from experience.

Epistemology

Hume denies the existence of innate ideas; the only elements of reasoning are ideas and impressions. There are two types of reasoning: a priori and a posteriori. The principle of causality states that a particular cause always and necessarily produces a particular effect.

Metaphysics

Hume criticizes the three Cartesian substances (the self, external reality, and God), denying the claim of the existence of the self and asserting that we cannot ensure God's existence.

Ethics

Hume argues that morality is based on moral sentiment and defends moral emotivism.

Problem of Knowledge

All our...

Influence and Departure from Rousseau

Kant's political thought, rooted in contractualism, flourished during an era of optimism. Influenced by Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Hobbes, Kant introduced the social contract in his practical philosophy, echoing Rousseau's work. However, Kant's approach diverges significantly. For Kant, the social contract isn't a historical event but a regulative idea of practical reason—a benchmark against which real policies are judged. It compels legislators to act "as if" laws originate from the general will, making it an ideal, not a utopian aspiration.

Sovereignty and the Role of Citizens

Unlike Rousseau, who vested sovereignty in the united will of the people, Kant identifies the sovereign as the monarch or elected...

Jean Jacques Rousseau

1. Historical Context

It occurs in eighteenth century France, with the confrontation between the bourgeoisie and nobility that will lead to the French Revolution. Picture emerges as a movement to liberation and human happiness as a liberation movement to human happiness and progress through reason.

The reason is the instrument that enables human societies to adapt to the natural laws thus opening the field for searching and researching new social and cultural laws. The philosophy of research into new social and cultural laws. Rousseau's philosophy is that social order must be in accordance with the laws of nature.

2. Framework Sociocultural

Will come determined, in the field of arts and literature, the emergence of big names...

Alma (Soul)

A finite spiritual substance. It is simple because it is not composed of parts and therefore immortal. It is an independent substance from the body and does not require it to exist. It is the principle of consciousness, that is, what makes us aware.

Certainty

An act of perfect understanding that fully recognizes the clarity, distinction, and conviction of truth. It is the security of possessing the truth. It is based on evidence. It refers to the evidence that something is true, as false certainty can exist: being sure of something that is actually wrong.

Clarity and Distinction

These belong to the first rule of the Cartesian method and are key features of evidence. Claro is what is transparent, clear, and visible to reason. Distinto...

Nihilism and the Path to the Übermensch

Nihilism is a critical movement in the history of Western culture. The Western spirit, burdened by high, inadequate, and fictitious values, succumbs to nihilism—i.e., losing faith in these foundational values. When this occurs, culture remains nonsensical, as nihilism acts as a destructive force against the basis of Western civilization: God, the monotheistic God. This God dies, whom we have collectively killed.

Overcoming Nihilism: The Will to Power

When we realize this death, we can overcome the nihilistic state by constructing a new table of values leading to the Übermensch (Superman). Nietzsche’s active nihilism is a violent, destructive power that stems from a growing spiritual strength. The desire...

Nietzsche's Critique of Metaphysics and Language

Nietzsche's critique of metaphysics involves a static interpretation of being, which he argues strips away the essence of change and becoming. This criticism stems from the German philosopher's view on conceptual knowledge.

Critique of Conceptual Genesis

Platonism and Reification

Nietzsche's first complaint targets a certain Platonism in the genesis and formation of concepts. This has led to the reification and substantification of concepts. Concepts, once created to refer to original experiences or familiarity, have, over time, become substances themselves. They acquire independent life, surpassing the real life they initially attempted to reflect.

Abstraction and Universal Representation

Furthermore,...

The Body and Soul

Departing from the Pythagorean idea of the body as the soul's prison, St. Augustine, influenced by the incarnation of the Word, exalts the human body. Regarding the soul's origin, Augustine admits uncertainty between the prevailing theories of Tertullian's traducianism (parental generation) and St. Jerome's creationism. He believes, however, that the souls of Adam and Christ were divinely created.

The Soul and God

Central to Augustine's thought are the soul and God. Understanding humanity necessitates inquiring about God, as humanity is incomplete without God. The human soul, mirroring the Trinity, is also one and triune in its capacity for mind, knowledge, and love. "Therefore, the mind, its knowledge, and love are three,...