Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Latin for Baccalaureate

Benito Pérez Galdós: Life and Major Novels

Benito Pérez Galdós. He was born in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. From a very young age he lived in Madrid, dedicated to literature, and was elected to the Royal Spanish Academy. He failed in his candidacy for the Nobel Prize because of opposition from Spanish conservatives.

Classification of Galdós's novels

Galdós's novels can be classified into the following groups:

• Early novels: Galdós does not hide his sympathy for liberal Spain: La Fontana de Oro, Doña Perfecta, Gloria, Marianela, La familia de León Roch.
• Contemporary Spanish novel: Fortunata y Jacinta, which portrays the social life of Madrid at the time. It is Galdós's finest depiction of settings and social types, with masterful use of dialogue

Romantic Lyrical Poetry: 19th Century

The Romantic period began in the first half of the 19th century. At the start of the War of Independence, the reign of Charles IV ended. Following the war, Ferdinand VII was proclaimed king, repealed the constitution, and persecuted liberals. Spanish Romanticism saw significant development during the early reign of Elizabeth II, when liberals unveiled their works. Two generations of poets emerged: José de Espronceda and Mariano José de Larra, who utilized classical forms, and Rosalía de Castro and Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, who renewed poetic expression.

Key Romantic Figures

• José de Espronceda (1808–1842): Born in Almendralejo, he dedicated his life to journalism and politics. His most important works

Item 9: The Evolution of Greek Historiography

There are two distinct periods in Greek historiography: the first extends from Homer to Herodotus, and the second spans from Herodotus to Polybius and the development of Latin historiography.

Herodotus: The Father of History

Herodotus lived through the second Persian War (historically known as the Greco-Persian or Medical Wars) and the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. He authored a significant historical work, later divided into books by Alexandrian scholars. This work primarily focuses on the Persian Wars that confronted the Greeks and Persians.

Main Features of Herodotus' Work:

• Theme: The central theme is the Persian Wars.
• Universal History: It is considered the first attempt at a universal story.

The Ballad Tradition

Ballads are organized traditional stories, often associated with the life events of older generations. They can be classified as either epic or lyric poetry.

Ballads flourished primarily during the 16th and 17th centuries. Knowledge of these works varies; some are fully known, while others are only partially preserved.

It is not unusual for a single ballad to have received more than one version, and dialect variations are common.

Alegialariak: Basque Fable Writers

The phenomenon of the Alegialariak (fable writers) significantly contributes to our knowledge of literature from the 18th and 19th centuries.

Basque fable writers often undertook extensive work adapting and adjusting existing fables.

Characteristics of Fables (Alegiak)

Early 20th Century Spanish Theater

The early years of the 20th century highlighted a commercial theater and entertainment scene that primarily emphasized the works of Jacinto Benavente, the Quintero brothers, and Pedro Muñoz Seca.

Jacinto Benavente (1866–1954)

A native of Madrid, member of the Royal Spanish Academy, and 1922 Nobel Prize winner for Literature, Benavente adapted his theater to the mentality of his time. His work consisted of well-constructed pieces featuring bourgeois settings.

• Early career: Began with The Nest, but its failure led him to compose Saturday Night.
• Notable works: Vested Interests and The Unloved.

Eduardo Marquina (1879–1943)

This Barcelona-born author wrote realistic prose works and poetic dramas set in the rural...

Spanish Theater From 1939: An Evolution

Post-War Spanish Theater: Challenges and Context

Spanish theater after 1939 was quite poor compared to foreign theater. Innovations prior to the war disappeared, and exiled writers faced significant difficulties in having their work performed in Spain. They had to overcome censorship, isolation, and commercial cultural eagerness. Theater developed at the margins of innovative trends that were succeeding abroad.

Spanish Theater in Exile: Voices Beyond Borders

Several currents can be distinguished in exile theater:

• Political or representative theater, exemplified by Rafael Alberti with works such as "El adefesio" (The Eyesore).
• Realistic theater of Max Aub, with works like "San Juan".

Alejandro Casona also stands...

The Splendor and Fall of the Baroque

The Baroque is the cultural and artistic movement that developed during the 17th century. This era coincided with a period of economic and social crisis, marked by:

• Poverty and depopulation.
• The expulsion of the Moors.
• Kings leaving the government in the hands of politicians.
• A serious crisis caused by bankruptcy and the decline in the arrival of precious metals from America.
• The impoverishment of the majority of the population. Disillusionment and disappointment replaced Renaissance ideals.

Thought and Culture

The Baroque period was characterized by pessimism and disillusionment. Humanist ideals were abandoned in favor of a deeper focus on religion. This sense of crisis was reflected in a culture of violent contrasts....

Common Rhetorical Figures and Devices

• Alliteration: Repetition of one or more sounds very close together.
• Onomatopoeia: Alliteration that tries to imitate real sounds.
• Paronomasia: Repetition of very similar-sounding words.
• Anaphora: Repetition of a word at the beginning of a sentence or verse.
• Parallelism: Repetition of syntactic structures.
• Anadiplosis: Repetition of the last words or syntagms of one verse at the beginning of another statement.
• Concatenation: Several consecutive instances of anadiplosis.
• Epanadiplosis: Repetition of a word at the beginning and end of a verse or prayer.
• Pun (Retruécano): Repetition of words by reversing the order or structures.
• Chiasmus: Repetition involving a cross-distribution of the same structural elements.
• Hyperbaton:

The Purpose of Royal Chronicles

The chronicles of the kings were dictated by the monarchs themselves. Their primary goal was **propaganda**: showing readers and listeners the great deeds of the monarchs, justifying military actions and policies, and serving as an example of nobility and heroism.

Jordi de Sant Jordi: Poetic Language and the Poem "Prisoner"

Jordi de Sant Jordi was a poet of love poetry, and his songs of farewell and enyorament (longing) are distinguished by their sensitivity and melancholy. The poem "Prisoner" presents a realistic and personal character, marking a departure from traditional troubadouresque topics.

The Two Major Italian Poets

Dante Alighieri and Petrarch.

Ausias March: Poet-Philosopher and Love Philosophy

The concept...

Theater in the 16th Century

In the first half of the sixteenth century, popular and Italian-inspired theater was performed in palaces, increasingly acquiring Renaissance features. Notable figures include:

• Juan del Encina: Eclogue of Placida and Victorian
• Torres Naharro: Hymen
• Gil Vicente
• Lope de Rueda: Known for his pasos, which were performed during the intervals of comedies and served as the antecedent to the entremeses.

Late 16th-Century Theater

In the second half of the sixteenth century, Juan de la Cueva became a precursor to the great theater of Lope de Vega. Characteristics of his work include:

• Incorporation of medieval heroes and epic themes.
• A mix of tragic and comic elements.
• Presence of both noble and plebeian characters.
• Structure consisting