Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Latin for Baccalaureate

Modernism and the Generation of '98 in Spanish Literature

Understanding Spanish Modernism

The late 19th and early 20th centuries in Spain witnessed the emergence of two significant literary and intellectual movements: Modernism and the Generation of '98. Modernism, in particular, sought a profound artistic renewal, standing in opposition to realism. This period coincided with Spain's significant loss of its last colonies, a severe blow that sparked discussions about national regeneration.

Definition and Origins of Modernism

Modernism is defined as a movement advocating for political, ideological, social, and religious renewal and change. It originated around 1880 in Hispanic America and arrived in Spain primarily through the influential work of...

The Evolution of Languages in Spain

Articulation:

• Bilabial: p, b, m
• Labiodental: f
• Interdental: z
• Dental: t, d
• Alveolar: s, l, r, n
• Palatal: c
• Velar: k, g, j

Articulatory Section Modification:

• Occlusive: p, b, t, d, k, g
• Fricatives: f, z, s, y, j
• Affricates: c
• Lateral: L
• Vibrant: r
• Nasal: n, m

Vowel Sounds:

• Central, Open: a
• Anterior, Middle: e
• Above, Closed: i
• Later, Media: o
• Back, Close: o

Sonority:

• Sonorous: b, d, g, m, n, l, r
• Deaf: k, c, d, f, j, p, s, t, z

1. Pre-Roman Languages

Before the advent of different languages, Latin was spoken in the Iberian Peninsula. With the invasions came different languages. With Romanization, these languages, except Euskera (Basque), were disappearing.

2. Romanization Process

A process of Romanization arose. When the Romans arrived,...

The Novel in the Generation of '98

As indicated in the chapter on the Generation of '98, the novel is the most important genre for many cultured members of this group. The subjects they prefer are Spain, the causes of decay, history, people... further reflection on man and his destiny. These authors do not care about the history of great characters, but for what Unamuno called the intra-historia, i.e., 'the quiet life of thousands of people without history.' Another key element in the novels of the Generation of '98 is the description of the landscape as a reflection of a particular mood.

With regard to form, these authors rely on simplicity and clarity, fleeing empty rhetoric and long sentences. The most important thing is the plot, background,...

Miguel Hernández's poetry consistently explores three major themes: life, love, and death. His Cancionero y romancero de ausencias (Songbook and Ballads of Absences) encapsulates these profound subjects.

Nature in Hernández's Poetry

Hernández was a nature poet from childhood. His early work depicted nature as a living environment, covering landscapes and everyday elements of his modest existence. His poems, often described as modernist in their features, delve into the mystery of creation, attempting to reach the soul of things. He considered himself part of nature, exalting and dignifying even the most insignificant elements, making any element the subject of his verse.

"Perito en lunas": A Góngora-Inspired Work

At this stage, his most significant...

Realism in Literature

Realism was an artistic movement of the second half of the 19th century that reacted against the excesses of Romanticism, valuing the thorough and accurate observation of reality. Naturalism, a concurrent movement, sought to explain the causes of human behavior by focusing on extreme characters and emphasizing their psychological aspects.

Key Characteristics of Realism

The dominant genres were the short story and the novel. Key features include:

• Careful observation of reality
• Contemporary settings
• Pre-thesis approach
• Detailed characterization
• Omniscient narrator

The style is characterized by a sober approach where dialogues take on great importance.

Representative Authors

Benito Pérez Galdós is the most representative author of...

Classical Precepts of Renaissance Drama

The rules of the Renaissance classical precepts, appealing to the authority of Aristotle and Horace, defended a series of strict guidelines for dramatic composition:

1. Clear Distinction Between Tragedy and Comedy

   A clear distinction must be maintained between tragedy and comedy. These genres were characterized by specific elements:

   • Tragedy: Characterized by action moving from a happy onset to a sad ending, the sublimity of the characters (gods, kings, and high nobility), and a high degree of reality. The subject matter had to be historic, and the tragedy had to be written in heroic verse.
   • Comedy: The action of the play moved from conflict to ultimate happiness. The social status of the characters had to be medium

Greek Sculpture

Greek sculpture was primarily crafted in bronze and marble, but also in wood, gold, and ivory. It encompassed two main types:

• Relief Sculpture: Used to decorate spandrels and friezes in temples and shrines.
• Free-standing Sculpture: This form embodied the Hellenistic canon of beauty, emphasizing proportion, balance, symmetry, volume, and movement.

Greek sculptures were very naturalistic. The central theme was the human form, which represented various gods, goddesses, heroes, heroines, and athletes.

Sculptural Periods

• Archaic Period: Small figures, known as xoana, first appeared. It was thought they served to pay homage to deities. However, sculptures of athletes were more common. Male figures are called kouroi and female figures korai.

Minstrelsy

El juglar's life combined visits to castles and wandering travels to aldeas. For money, they reported on current events to a public eager for news (informational function) and entertained to show a wide range of skills like circus games and acrobatics (role games). This was the most neglected and spontaneous art, which served both the clergy and the illiterate population, known as the mester de juglaría.

Epic Poems: First Manifestations

Epic poems: These are the first manifestations of the medieval epic (later in the Late Middle Ages they become fragmented and the romances arise). According to Menéndez Pidal, they have their origin in certain songs of the barbarians; these were sung before battles to instill encouragement and to evoke...

Spain in the 18th Century

Spain was in deep crisis due to the War of the Spanish Succession. Philip V of Bourbon finally took the throne. His reign, along with that of Ferdinand VI, led to greater stability. During the reign of Charles IV, Godoy was prominent, whose poor policies had serious consequences. In this century, Spain experienced an economic upswing. Enlightened reforms sought to improve the economy, promoting the figure of the merchant, but industry remained poor. Society was still based on estates, with a loosely organized bourgeoisie (composed of artisans and merchants), peasants, beggars, slaves, etc. Despite reforms intended to undermine these differences, they persisted. The reforms also focused on education and the economy....