Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geology for Secondary education

When a body, by heat or cold moves from one state to another, we say that has changed state. In the case of water: when it's warm, ice melts and see if we heat liquid water that evaporates. The rest of the substances may change state if you change the conditions in which they occur. In addition to temperature, pressure also affects the state as are the chemicals.
If a solid is heated, there comes a time when it becomes liquid. This process is called fusion. The melting point is the temperature must reach a solid substance melts. Each substance has a characteristic melting point. For example, the melting point of pure water is 0 ° C at normal atmospheric pressure.
If we heat a liquid turns into gas. This process is called vaporization. When...

Landscape Patterns

Elements of the Earth's surface, including biotic and anthropic.

Relief

The aspect of the land area outside of biotic elements.

Oceanic Crust

Basalt, covered with water almost in its entirety.

Continental Crust

Granite, thicker, less dense, mostly out on the oceans, and continents form.

Oceanic Ridges

(Points creating crust) Alignments of volcanoes with intense volcanic activity. Fissures emit lava through cracks.

Oceanic Trenches

Areas of intense seismic activity, as this point in the oceanic crust sinks into the mantle (point of destruction of crust).

Continental Crust: Mountain Ranges

Alignments of mountains formed by folding the material or volcanic activity.

Continental Shelves

Part of the continental crust covered by the sea.

Continental

Understanding Environmental Pollution

Pollution is defined as an increase in harmful substances or the excessive addition of energy into the natural environment. Contamination directly affects both the biological activity and the survival of living organisms, including human beings.

Chemical and Physical Contamination

Pollution types are classified according to the natural medium they affect: air, soil, or groundwater.

• Chemical contamination: The presence of unusual or foreign chemical compounds in the environment.
• Physical contamination: Undesirable changes in the physical characteristics of the atmosphere, soil, or water.

Factors in Atmospheric Pollution

Atmospheric contamination (air pollution) has become a severe problem that not only compromises...

Tectonic Theory

The Earth's crust is formed by several tectonic plates moving slowly. These plates separate, overlap, and collide, creating new forms of relief.

Volcanoes

Openings in the crust through which hot material from inside the ground reaches the surface.

Earthquakes

Ground shaking caused by the fracture and displacement of rocks. When occurring in the sea, they can trigger tsunamis, which are capable of destroying everything in their path.

Landforms

• Mountains: Elevations with high slopes. Isolated peaks are called hills, while grouped or jagged formations are known as mountain ranges.
• Highlands: Extensive flat or slightly inclined surfaces located at a certain altitude above sea level.
• Plains: Large flat or gently undulating surfaces at a low

Modeling of Surface Water

• Forms of Erosion: Grooves and Gullies: Streams formed by water remove materials, originating grooves and other larger features.
• V-Shaped Valleys: Rivers carve V-shaped valleys.
• Forms Arising from Differential Erosion.
• Alluvial Fan: Accumulation of eroded material transported by a stream, deposited in floodplains during floods.
• Meanders: Curves described by rivers.
• Fluvial Terraces: Old floodplains where rivers have cut down, leaving terraces far below.

Modeling of Glaciers

A glacier is a large mass of ice that moves over land.

• Cirque: Area where snow accumulates and turns into ice.
• Glacial Tongue: Ice mass that descends into the valley.
• Terminal Moraine: Area where ice melts and deposits transported material.

Forms of Erosion

• U-

General Characteristics of Argumentation

Argumentation is a type of discourse whose main purpose is to convince the interlocutor of something or to win them over to a particular attitude. The issuer's position is subjective.

The essential difference between argumentative and expository texts is that expository texts present verifiable facts that can be proven true or false, whereas argumentative texts present opinions that cannot be considered true or false.

Situations Where Argumentation Appears

Argumentation appears in many situations of communication:

• Interpersonal situations: daily life, such as asking someone for something or trying to convince someone. These use informal language.
• Social situations: structured discourse using elaborate and

Human Sexuality and the Reproductive System

Human sexuality is part of our body and our identity. It includes our sexual orientation, our gender identity and our biological sex. The reproductive organs are the sexual organs: the ovaries and uterus in females, and the testicles and penis in males.

Each individual's biological sex is determined at fertilization by the chromosome type carried by the sperm, which fertilizes the egg.

Puberty and Adolescence

Puberty is the stage when the body reaches sexual maturity and becomes capable of reproduction. During adolescence, people develop secondary sexual characteristics and undergo psychological changes. Their interests in friendships and attraction also begin to develop, and they become able to make...

Minerals: These are defined by their solid state, fixed chemical composition, origin through natural processes, and crystalline structure.

Formation of Minerals

• Chemical precipitation: Occurs through the precipitation of salts in the water.
• Solidification: Occurs when magma cools.
• Sublimation: Minerals crystallized from volcanic gases.

Mineral Properties

Key properties include density, hardness, cleavage, color, brightness, and clearness.

Endogenous Rocks

Endogenous rocks originate in endogenous geological processes, which are driven by the internal energy of the planet.

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are formed by metamorphism, which is a transformation of minerals in a rock that already exists due to changes in pressure and temperature.

Magmatic

Climate and Weather

Geography: climate, atmospheric time. Time: the time of the atmosphere, its state in one area at a given moment, determines the weather.

Temperature

Temperature is the degree of heating or cooling of the air. Its main factors are:

• Latitude: the closer to the Equator, the higher the temperature; temperature decreases toward the poles.
• Altitude and relief: temperature decreases on average 6 degrees Celsius for every 1,000 meters of altitude.
• Influence of the sea: the sea heats and cools more slowly than the land, moderating the temperature of coastal areas.
• Ocean currents: warm or cold currents preferentially heat or cool the coasts they wash.

Precipitation

Precipitation is the fall of water from the atmosphere to the Earth's surface,...

Material Properties of Systems

Definitions of Matter and Systems

Matter: Anything that occupies space and has mass.
Material System: A portion of matter considered isolated for study.
Substance: A particular type of matter.

General and Specific Properties

General Properties: Properties like volume and mass that all material systems possess. They do not provide information about the type of substance.
Specific Properties: Properties that depend on the class of substance, the amount of matter, or its shape.

Mass and Volume

• Mass: A property of material systems that measures the amount of matter a body possesses.
• Volume: A property that informs how much space a material occupies. The unit in the International System is the cubic meter (m³).

Density of Bodies

Density: