Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geology for Baccalaureate

Economic Globalization and Major Institutions

International trade has grown significantly, leading to new production organization models, intensified international financial flows, and increased trade agreements between countries.

Key International Institutions

• World Bank: Aims to reduce poverty.
• IMF (International Monetary Fund): Advises governments on financial matters and provides loans to member countries.

Centers of the World Economy

Major Economic Powers

• United States: Represents over 20% of total world production. The US dollar remains the most important global currency.
• European Union: Stands as a leading economic power, though behind the United States in several aspects.
• East and Southeast Asia: Japan remains a wealthy nation. China has emerged

Plains and the Ebro Valley

In the late primary period, along with Catalonia, a sea paneled. In the secondary period, there was much sedimentation. The Pyrenean stage lifted the edges, especially to the north (Pyrenees), which became a gulf, and a rise in the lake's eastern hills occurred in the Miocene epoch. In the Quaternary period, it emptied through a crack in the Mastership.

Levante Coastal Formations

Low cost of sea and river silting.

Guadalquivir Valley Formation

Similar to the Ebro Valley in form and unifying factors. The primary mountains rose in the secondary area, which was covered with water in the Betic tertiary period. The tilting of the peninsula emptied the area on the Gulf of Cadiz, where the contributions of the river converge,...

Biomass Conversion Techniques

Biomass consists of organic materials such as animal dung, agricultural waste, crop residues, and biodegradable waste. Biomass energy is obtained by converting these materials into useful forms of energy.

Types of Biomass Conversion Techniques

Thermochemical Conversion

• Combustion: Direct burning of biomass to produce heat and power.
• Gasification: Partial combustion producing combustible gases.
• Pyrolysis: Heating biomass without oxygen to obtain bio-oil, gas, and char.

Biochemical Conversion

• Anaerobic digestion: Microbial breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen to produce biogas.
• Fermentation: Conversion of sugars into alcohol using microorganisms.

Physical Conversion

• Briquetting and pelletization: Processes used

Celestial Mechanics & Timekeeping

Time Definitions and Earth's Motion

• Solar Day: The time from one local noon to the next; Earth rotates slightly more than 360° relative to the Sun.
• Sidereal Day: The time for a distant star to appear in the same position in the sky; approximately 4 minutes shorter than a solar day.
• Earth's Precession: A slow wobble in Earth's rotational axis, completing a cycle approximately every 26,000 years.

Moon Phases, Tides, and Orbit

• First Quarter Moon: Rises around noon, sets around midnight.
• Third Quarter Moon: Rises around midnight, sets around noon.
• Spring Tides: Occur during full and new moons, resulting in the highest tidal range.
• Neap Tides: Occur during first and third quarter moons, resulting in the lowest tidal

Humidity

The amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere.

Sotavento (Leeward)

The side sheltered from the wind; the opposite of windward.

Windward

The side facing the wind.

Glacial Valley

Characterized by a U-shaped cross-section or trough, which in geomorphology is seen as the main feature differentiating these types of channels, formed by the movement or sliding of an ice tongue.

Bay

An inlet of the sea into the coast.

Archipelago

A general term for a group or chain of islands.

Coastal Breeze

A gentle movement of air that occurs in coastal locations, blowing from the sea or from land.

Zocalo (Geological Shield)

Plains and plateaus formed in the primary era as a result of the devastation by erosion of mountain ranges encountered during the orogeny of...

1. Geological Processes: Origin and Types

1.1 External Geological Processes

• Source:
  • Solar energy
• Type:
  • Weathering: Action of the atmosphere
  • Erosion: Separation of fragments and soil disturbance
  • Transport: Movement of these fragments in favor of gravity

1.2 Internal Geological Processes

• Source:
  • Geothermal energy inside the Earth
• Type:
  • Orogenic Movements: Horizontal displacement
  • Epirogenic Movements: The rise and decline with increasing mass of the Earth's crust

2. Plate Tectonics

• Structure based on geochemical and dynamic models:

• Source of plate movement:
  • Two scenarios:

1. Convection currents or flaring rims creating constructive

2. Q Factors Considered in Risk Assessment

A. Dangerousness

The hazard estimates its potential to transform into the middle environment. Peligrosidad: probability of occurrence in a geographical area at a specific time. Distribución: occurrence-surface area affected, time of return or recurrence interval, hazard level, intensity, area phenomenon. Hazard maps, occurrence, occurrence + areas of its surface-recurrence-time of return; grade-intensity danger.

B. Exposure or Interference

Process naturally occurring in a particular area, and the social process. Good active preventive measures on the natural process can reduce its hazardous nature, or passive measures to avoid interference with total exposure. Number of people (social exposure) and total...

Understanding Energy

Energy: is the physical quantity by which bodies are able to make changes on themselves or on other bodies.

Forms of Energy

• Mechanical Energy: The energy bodies possess by being in motion (kinetic), by being some distance above the soil surface (potential), or by experiencing deformation (elastic).
• Electrical Power: Current electricity is produced in large facilities called power plants through electric generators. It also occurs in dry cell batteries.
• Nuclear Power: This comes from nuclear fusion and fission reactions. In these reactions, the mass of the nuclei is converted into this form of energy.
• Heat: This is the form of energy that flows from one body to another when there is a temperature difference. It produces effects

Geological History of the Iberian Peninsula

The Precambrian Era

On a global scale, all landmasses formed a single continent, Rodinia, later called Pangea I.

The Paleozoic Era

Two large plates separated by the Tethys Sea existed. There were two major orogenies: the Caledonian Orogeny and the Hercynian Orogeny. The newly formed basement, called the Hesperian Massif, occupied and controlled much of the western peninsula. To the northeast of the Hesperian Massif, the Ebro and Catalano-Balearic massifs occur. To the southeast, the Bético-Rifeño Massif appears solid.

The Mesozoic Era

Epeirogenic movements were produced by the slow rise and fall of the Earth's crust, featuring phases of marine transgressions and regression stages.

The Cenozoic Era (Tertiary

The Organization

The organization is a graphical representation of the formal structure of a company. Classes of organization are divided according to:

• Information: Intended to provide an overview of the company.
• Structure-analytical charts: Designed to understand the total structure, including organizational units, reflecting the integrated relationships.

Extension

• General organization: Reflects the overall organizational structure of the company.
• Organization: Concerns a specific business department.

Content

• Organizational Structure: Represents the various units of the company and its relationships.
• Organizational Functionals: Represents the functions of each organizational entity.
• Personal: Indicates the units represented, their rank, and the name