Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geology for Baccalaureate

Classification of Risks by Origin

Risks, according to their origin, are divided into three main categories: natural, technological, and mixed.

Natural Hazards

Natural hazards are incidents defined by the internal and external dynamics of the Earth. They are further classified by their specific origin:

• Geological:
  • Endogenous: Associated with internal geodynamics (e.g., volcanoes, earthquakes).
  • Exogenous: Associated with external geodynamics (e.g., movements of hillsides, torrents).
• Meteorological (Weather): Caused by the action of the atmosphere (e.g., hurricanes, typhoons).
• Cosmic: Due to external phenomena (e.g., meteors, asteroids).
• Physical: Includes risks like natural fires and natural radioactivity.
• Biological: Risks caused by living organisms.

Technological

Climate Factors of the Iberian Peninsula

Climate factors are the aspects influencing the permanent and unchanging climate.

A. Geography

• Latitude: The latitude of the Iberian Peninsula in the Northern Hemisphere temperate zone determines two main seasons, summer and winter, separated by two transition periods: spring and autumn.
• Situation: The location of the peninsula between two large bodies of water makes it a crossroads for distinct air masses.
• Maritime Influence: The influence of the sea is scarce on the peninsula due to its large width, short coastlines, and mountainous topography.
• Relief: Influences the climate through summit disposition, orientation, height, and relief position. Mountainous systems parallel to the coast facilitate the entry

Glossary of Atmospheric and Environmental Terms

Albedo

Solar energy reflected back to space by clouds and airborne dust.

Anticyclone

Areas of high pressure caused by descending air masses.

Inversion

A zone of the troposphere where the temperature increases with height due to a disturbance of the vertical temperature gradient.

Urban Heat Island (UHI)

A phenomenon where urban warm air rises and cools down on the outskirts of the city, creating a local cyclical movement that retains pollution and maintains a temperature a few degrees higher than that of the surrounding areas.

Low-Pressure System (Cyclone)

Areas of low pressure caused by rising air masses.

Climate

A set of atmospheric conditions that characterize a region.

Greenhouse Effect

A process by which...

Spain is geographically softened, like an inaccessible castle. The Iberian Peninsula has the highest average altitude in Europe, second only to Switzerland. The coast is often surrounded by walls, and the citadel would be the plateau, with a mean altitude of 700 meters. This plateau is the higher, more archaic, and more exposed part of the peninsula. However, even within this core, inaccessibility occurs again, as if there were more castles within the main one.

Geological Evolution

The geological evolution of the Iberian Peninsula is primarily due to its location between the African and European plates. There are several geological land surface sets in Iberia:

Geological Sets

• Very Ancient Materials (Precambrian or Archaic): Heavily affected by

3D Sculpture Transfer System

The 3D transfer system applies a process to create an exact copy of a sculpture by setting reference points, average diameters, and minimum measurements. It translates three-dimensional sculpture measurements without damaging wood, stone, or clay by measuring the height, width, and depth of the piece. Its basic tools are squares, set squares, compasses, and a pointing machine. The most commonly used techniques are the pointing system and the compass method.

Geometric Solids

Geometric solids are objects that occupy a volume in space, developing in three dimensions (height, width, and length), and are composed of geometric figures (polygons). The lines that correspond to the common sides of the various planes of geometric

The Ebro and Guadalquivir River Depressions

The Ebro Depression

The Ebro Depression is wedged between the foothills of the Pyrenees, the Iberian System, and the Catalan Coastal Range. It has a length of 380 km and a maximum width of 150 km. The Ebro River runs through this depression. The river and its tributaries form a communication network, where cities and irrigated areas are located. The Ebro flows through a passage between the Catalan Coastal Range that leads to the Mediterranean, where it forms a very extensive delta.

The Guadalquivir Depression

The Guadalquivir Depression is bordered by the Sierra Morena and the rugged Cordillera mountain ranges. This large, flat, triangular-shaped depression is about 330 km long and 200 km wide at the...

Geographical Factors: The Geographical Position

Spain is situated between two continents, Eurasia and Africa. Located between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, it is influenced by both. Receiving both maritime and continental influences, Spain presents specific features characteristic of such climatic influences.

The Spanish territory experiences a significant duration of daylight throughout the year. Positioned on the western facade of the European continent, very close to the subtropical zone, Spain receives influences from the Azores anticyclone and warm air masses. Furthermore, Atlantic storms pass through Spain toward Europe, and the region serves as a gateway for hot winds from Africa, the Azores anticyclone, and cold winds...

Key Hydrological Concepts and River Systems

• Dry season: The period during which a river reaches its lowest flow.
• Watershed: The land whose waters pour into a river and its principal tributaries.
• Headwaters of a river: The upper area of a river valley.
• River Regime: The seasonal variation in river flow, which depends on the distribution of rainfall and the importance of nival (snowfall) precipitation.
• Torrente: An intermittent watercourse that forms during times of very fast rainfall or snowmelt.
• Rambla: The course of a torrent that remains dry for much of the year.
• River Diversion: A transfer of water between surplus and deficit basins.
• Glacier Lake: A mass of water collected in basins excavated by ice in the valley of a glacier.

Ocean Climate and Deciduous

Types of Seismic Waves

Vibration caused by plate slippage along fault blocks, transmitted from the origin.

• P/Primary waves: Longitudinal, quick (~5 km/s), transmitted through solids, liquids, and gases.
• S/Secondary waves: Transverse, slower, do not pass through liquids.
• L/Surface waves: Slower than P and S waves, cause most surface destruction.
  • Rayleigh waves: Elliptical motion.
  • Love waves: Horizontal motion, nearly perpendicular to the direction of travel.

Earthquake Distribution at Plate Boundaries

Earthquake activity varies depending on the type of plate boundary:

• Oceanic ridges: Zones of lithosphere expansion, moderately active surface earthquakes.
• Subduction zones: Zones of lithosphere destruction, strong seismic activity, where one plate bends

Geomorphology of the Campinas

The Campinas are vast, undulating landscapes with slopes lacking escarpments. They formed on clay and sand, resulting in elongated hills and wide valleys, rarely featuring an actual riverbed. These plains vary in altitude (700–1000 m), genesis, and location:

• Tierra de Campos: Located in the river valleys originating from the mountains, formed by impermeable clay excavation and interrupted by rapid, shallow lagoons.
• South of the Duero Campinas: Known as "Pine Land," these are covered with sand brought from the mountains by wind, even forming dunes. This includes the Arevalo-Madrigal countryside.
• Marginal-Campinas: Narrow strips located between the moors and mountains.
• Detrital-Platform: Characterized by alluvium and