Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for University

The Industrial Revolution: A Transformative Era

The Industrial Revolution began in England and spread to the rest of Western Europe and the United States. This profound period was driven by advancements not only in technology but also in medicine and science. These advancements—technology, medicine, and science—fundamentally altered the lives of people living in the new industrial cities.

Origins in England: Why It Started There

It commenced in England around 1750 for several key reasons:

• By this year, England was a wealthy nation compared to others.
• England possessed a stable government.
• The nation was rich in natural resources such as iron, coal, and rivers.
• It benefited from products originated in its colonies.
• There was a huge enthusiasm for

New Economic Ideas: Physiocracy and the Classics

Mercantilism

The economic surplus arises from the trade surplus. The surplus is the part of the wealth produced which exceeds the wealth consumed in the production process.

Physiocracy

The focus was on agriculture.

Society Structure:

• Productive Class: Generates surplus.
• Sterile Class: Engages in useful, non-productive activities that do not generate surpluses.

Proposed Reforms:

• Abolition of restrictions on grain exports.
• Elimination of monopolies and promotion of free trade.
• Establishing a unified tax rate.

Classical School

Interest in the origin and nature of the economic surplus.

The American Revolution: Political and Economic Background

Impact of the Seven Years' War following the British victory:

• Need to

The Rise of New Energy Sources

Following the steam engine, the first industrial revolution saw oil and electricity emerge as transformative forces. While electricity was initially confined to laboratory experiments, its industrial adoption relied on low-cost production and efficient long-distance transmission, both of which were achieved in the late nineteenth century.

However, the early application of electricity remained limited. Until 1913, steam power held the primary position. Early power plants were small, serving mainly for lighting and traction. While France initially led in power production due to its central Alpine region, it was soon surpassed by the U.S., Germany, Great Britain, Switzerland, and Sweden.

The Emergence of the Oil Industry

The...

The Ancient Maya: A Central American Civilization

The ancient Maya once occupied a vast geographic area in Central America. Their civilization inhabited an area that encompasses Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula and parts of the states of Chiapas and Tabasco, as well as Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador. From the third to the ninth century, Maya civilization produced awe-inspiring temples and pyramids, highly accurate calendars, mathematics, hieroglyphics, and a complex social and political order.

Origins and Flourishing of Maya Culture

Maya culture can be traced back to 1500 BC, entering the Classic period around 300 AD and flourishing between 600 and 900 AD. Urban centers were important to the Maya during the Classic period, offering them...

Globalization: A Historical Perspective

The term "globalization," coined in 1961, is multifaceted and often interpreted differently. Generally, it refers to the increasing interconnectedness of people worldwide. However, some argue that it primarily revolves around economic interests.

When Did Globalization Begin?

Some scholars suggest that figures like Juan Sebastián Elcano, who circumnavigated the globe during the Age of Exploration, were early precursors to globalization.

The Three Waves of Contemporary Globalization

1850 - World War I: The Rise of Industrialization and Urbanization

This period, primarily driven by Europe and America, witnessed significant advancements in industrialization, technological innovation (e.g., the steam engine and...

The Political Landscape of the 16th Century

The Kingdom of England

• Political Crisis: England faced a period of political instability until the middle of the 16th century.
• Tudor Consolidation: Henry VIII established major control over both England and Wales.

The Italian Peninsula and Portugal

The Italian Peninsula remained divided into numerous states with relatively weak individual influence. Meanwhile, Portugal was a small and poorly populated state that eventually became part of the Habsburg Empire in 1581.

Northern and Eastern Europe

• Poland: Functioned as an elective monarchy under the Jagiellonian dynasty.
• Denmark: Recognized as the primary power in the North.
• Sweden: Engaged in a significant process of seeking independence.
• Russian Area: Underwent

VOCABULARY

UNIT 1

• Technological park
• Global warming
• Outskirts of the city
• Rainforests
• Young people
• Glaciers
• Pedestrianised area
• Sea ice
• Quality of life
• Sea levels
• New Projects
• Coral reefs
• Temperature
• Drought
• Extreme weather

UNIT 2

• Gateways
• Bottle
• Box
• Tin
• Carton
• Jar
• Packet
• Pot
• Tube
• Aluminium
• Cardboard
• Glass
• Metal
• Paper
• Plastic

UNIT 3

• International hub
• Specialised pole
• Regional pole
• Established capitals
• Re-invented capitals
• Knowledge hubs
• Profit
• Unemployment
• Poverty
• Famine
• War social situation
• Common sense
• Writing lines
• Detention
• Exclusion
• Swearing
• Suspension
• Hitting
• Not doing homework
• Bullying

A habit

Skill

A reminder

To delete

Terrible

To divide

A backup

The Roots of the Spanish Economic Crisis

Spain has been in a significant economic recession since the end of 2007. The primary causes of this economic downturn are the housing bubble and the banking sector.

The Impact of the Housing Bubble

The housing bubble is the most critical cause of the Spanish economic crisis. It occurred due to speculation that property prices would continue to rise, allowing people to earn significant profits through sales. Consequently, the demand for households and housing prices increased. As a result, industries related to housing were highly developed, and many jobs were created during this period.

The Role of the Banking Sector and "Cajas"

On the other hand, the situation of the banking sector during the bubble years...

Trade Diversion and Creation

Trade diversion: A shift in the pattern of trade from low-cost world producers to higher-cost CU or FTA members.

-e: trade diversion

Trade creation: An expansion in world trade that results from the formation of a preferential trade arrangement.

B+d: trade creation

Rules of Origin in Regional Economic Integration

Define rules of origin and which form of regional economic integration requires them.

Rules of origin are required in Free Trade Areas to avoid trade deflection and prevent export companies from outside the FTA from benefiting unfairly. These rules are the criteria established to determine the national source of a product. They are important because duties and restrictions often depend upon the source of imports....

Global Events and the Shift in Social Structures

The external background of this era involves various events worldwide, starting from the eighteenth century, which served to alter the existing structure. This movement culminates with the American colonies and a significant change in social policy structures.

External Factors: Independence of the 13 Colonies

During the seventeenth century in England, a migration process was triggered by English traders rejecting commercial monopolies. Those who were persecuted for their religion sought an alternative, finding the conditions to settle in America to:

• Experience wild adventures and civilize the territories.
• Achieve economic development.

By the eighteenth century, these colonies became hotbeds of development....