Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Vocational training

Head and Neck Anatomy: Quick Facts

1. Which muscle does the superficial cervical fascia contain? Platysma
2. Which part of the mandible is the stylomandibular ligament inserted? Angle and posterior border of ramus
3. What kind of secretion does the sublingual gland produce? Mixed, mainly mucous
4. What are the two anastomoses of the deep branch of the submental artery? Infra labial (facial) & mental artery (inferior alveolar)
5. Which nerve runs through the sphenopalatine foramen? Nasopalatine nerve
6. In which part of the brain is the hippocampus located? Limbic system
7. Which masticatory muscles do muscular branches of the facial artery supply? Medial pterygoid & masseter
8. What four cranial nerves (CNs) are related to the parasympathetic system? 3, 7, 9, 10
9. What

Dermis

The dermis is the part of the skin located below the epidermis, separated by the dermoepidermal junction. It is the connective tissue that holds the epidermis and contains the skin's nerves and sensory receptors. It is formed by a complex network of fibers embedded in a fundamental substance with few of its own cellular elements.

Function

• Provides resistance and flexibility to the skin.
• Acts as a protective barrier against internal agents, thus preventing infections.
• Serves as a reservoir for liquids.
• Stimulates the production of keratinocytes through keratogenesis.
• Participates in wound healing.

Structure

Papillary Dermis

This layer has a greater proportion of reticular fibers that participate in the dermoepidermal junction. Its function is to...

Composition of the Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system consists of a main body, the heart, and a series of tubes or blood vessels, including arteries, veins, and capillaries, through which blood circulates.

The Human Heart

The heart is a muscle roughly the size of a fist, located in the chest cavity between the lungs with its conical apex pointing downward. Externally, it features blood vessels and nerves.

Internal Heart Structure

The heart contains four cavities: two upper chambers called atria (left and right) and two lower chambers called ventricles (left and right). Each atrium communicates with its corresponding ventricle through a valve that prevents backflow:

• Tricuspid Valve: Located between the right atrium and right ventricle.

The Vital Role of Blood in Circulation

Blood is a red liquid that circulates through the blood vessels. It transports nutrients and oxygen to cells and collects carbon dioxide and other wastes.

Blood Composition: Plasma and Cells

Blood is made up of plasma and blood cells.

Blood Plasma Explained

Blood plasma is a yellowish liquid that carries nutrients, hormones, enzymes, and waste products from cells.

Types of Blood Cells

• Red blood cells (RBCs or erythrocytes): These contain hemoglobin, which binds oxygen in the lungs and transports it through the bloodstream to the capillaries, where it is released to reach all cells.
• White blood cells (leukocytes): These defend us from infectious agents like bacteria, viruses, and various parasites that enter through

Blood Vessels

The set of all blood vessels is called the vascular tree.

Arteries

• Blood vessels that supply blood from the heart to the periphery.
• They branch into smaller vessels (arterioles) as they move away from the heart.
• Most carry oxygen-rich blood and are poor in carbon dioxide (arterial blood).
• The color of the blood is bright red.
• They are typically located in deep zones.
• The wall is thick, rich in smooth muscle and elastic tissue.
• They do not have valves inside.

Veins

• Blood vessels that carry blood from the periphery to the heart.
• They merge into larger vessels (venules) as they approach the heart.
• Most carry oxygen-poor blood, rich in carbon dioxide (venous blood).
• The color of the blood is dark red.
• They are often visible through the skin on the

Root Caries

Root caries refers to decay affecting the root surfaces, specifically involving tissues such as cementum and dentin.

Types of Fillings (Black's Classification)

• Type I: Affects the occlusal surface in premolars and molars.
• Type II: Affects the proximal surfaces of incisors and canines.
• Type III: Affects the proximal surfaces of anterior teeth without involving the incisal edge.
• Type IV: Affects the proximal surfaces of incisors and canines with involvement of the incisal edge.
• Type V: Affects the cervical third of the facial or lingual surfaces of any tooth.

Acquired Pellicle

The acquired pellicle is a thin organic layer formed by salivary glycoproteins that coats the tooth surface within seconds of exposure to saliva. While it can be removed...

Understanding Viruses: Structure, Infection, and Immunity

A virus is a biological entity that needs a cell host to reproduce. Each virus particle, or virion, is a potentially infective agent consisting of a capsid (or protein coat) of protein surrounding the nucleic acid, which can be DNA or RNA. The shape of the capsid may be straightforward or helical, typically icosahedral (polyhedral or near-spherical), or complex, typically comprising a head and a tail. This structure can, in turn, be surrounded by the viral envelope, a lipid layer with different proteins, depending on the virus.

The life cycle of a virus always requires the metabolic machinery of the invaded cell to replicate its genetic material, producing many copies of the original virus....

Primary Glomerulonephritis

Primary glomerulonephritis involves structural and functional alterations of the glomeruli and is a leading cause of terminal renal failure. These conditions are classified into:

• Acute
• Chronic

Most cases are caused by immunologic processes:

1. Autoantibody contribution: Autoantibodies against the basement membrane attach to it, producing membrane inflammation.
2. Immune complex entrapment: Circulating immune complexes deposit in the glomerular membranes, triggering an inflammatory response. This is often caused by antigens such as bacteria or viruses, most characteristically the beta-hemolytic Streptococcus.
3. In situ formation: A mechanism where immune complexes are formed directly within the glomerulus.

Glomerulonephritis often...

Skeletal System

skull (Schädel)
cranial portion (Schädelteil)
facial portion (Gesichtsteil)
pectoral (shoulder) girdle (Schultergürtel)
clavicle (Schlüsselbein)
scapula (Schulterblatt)
thoracic cage (Brustkorb)
sternum (Brustbein)
rib (Rippe)

Upper Limb (obere Extremitäten)

• humerus (Oberarmknochen)
• ulna (Elle)
• radius (Speiche)
• carpal (Handwurzelknochen)
• metacarpal (Mittelhandknochen)
• phalange (Fingerknochen)

Lower Limb (untere Extremitäten)

• femur (Oberschenkelknochen)
• patella (Kniescheibe)
• tibia (Schienbein)
• metatarsal (Mittelfußknochen)
• phalanges (Zehenknochen)

Axial and Pelvic Skeleton

vertebral column (Wirbelsäule)
pelvic girdle (Beckengürtel)
hip bones (Beckenknochen)

Muscular System

• masseter (Kaumuskel)
• pectorales (Brustmuskel)
• biceps (Bizeps / Armbeuger)
• abdominals