Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for University

1. Telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein complex that consists of telomerase RNA (which contains several tandem hexanucleotide repeats complementary to the telomere repeats in the substrate) and a reverse transcriptase. This complex is able to synthesize telomeric repetitive DNA sequences at the end of linear DNA molecules. Telomerase RNA binds to the DNA strand, and complementary dNTPs are incorporated into newly synthesized, extended DNA strands by reverse transcriptase. Thus, dNTPs must also have been present during step 1 of the TRAP assay (step 1).

2. The PCR reaction mixture also contained a heat-resistant DNA polymerase (Taq polymerase).

3. Sample 3 contained cell extract isolated from immortal cells. In the presence of the telomerase, products...

Describe the location and Functions of the lateral occipital cortex (LOC), the fusiform face area (FFA) And the estrastriate body area (EAB).

The Lateral occipital complex (LOC) is a large region of the ventral stream of the Visual association cortex, and appears to respond to a wide variety of objects And shapes. // The fusiform face area (FFA) is located in the ventral stream, On the anterior fusiform gyrus. It recognizes facial features, but also the Activity of this region can be affected by previously learned information. // The Extraestriate body area (EBA) is located in the ventral stream posterior to the FFA and partly overlaps it. This region is specifically activated by Photographs, silhouettes, or stick drawings of human bodies or

Key Terms in Phonetics

Accent: This is the way a language is pronounced, varying according to geographical location, social class, age, and other factors.

Dialect: A variety of a language that differs from others not only in pronunciation but also in vocabulary, grammar, and word order.

Allophone: A predictable phonetic variant of a phoneme.

RP (Received Pronunciation): The standard form of pronunciation, often used as a reference point.

Vowels

Vowels are produced with no obstruction to the airflow; the air passes freely through the vocal tract from the larynx (voiced).

Types of Diphthongs

• Falling Diphthongs: The first element is more prominent.
• Rising Diphthongs: The second element is more prominent.
• Closing Diphthongs: Characterized by a reduced aperture

What is a Plasma Membrane, and Do All Cells Have One?

The plasma membrane encloses the cytoplasm and the cell's genetic material. It regulates what enters and exits the cell. Yes, all cells have a plasma membrane.

What Are the Two Central Tenets of Cell Theory?

• All organisms are composed of cells.
• Cells come only from preexisting cells.

What Are the Two Main Types of Cells?

• Prokaryotic cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus.
• Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus that houses DNA.

Where Do Prokaryotic Cells Store Their Genetic Material?

In the nucleoid.

What Domains Do Prokaryotic Cells Belong To?

Archaea and Bacteria.

What Are Three Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells?

• They are much smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells.
• They reproduce very quickly and effectively

Insect Defenses Against Predators

Three Plant Mechanisms to Defend Against Insects

• Physical: Thick walls
• Chemical: Phytochemicals that kill insects
• Entrapment: Pitcher plants

How Insects Overcome Physical Defenses

• Specialized mandibles
• Evolution
• Immunity to phytochemicals
• Specialization to survive the digestive liquid of pitcher plants

Insect Parasitism

Endoparasites

Approximately 20% of insect orders include endoparasites. Some orders that include endoparasites are:

• Hymenoptera
• Diptera
• Strepsiptera

Ectoparasites

Some orders that include ectoparasites are:

• Anoplura
• Mallophaga
• Siphonaptera

Three Challenges Faced by Endoparasites

• Respiration
• Excretion/getting rid of toxic nitrogenous waste without killing the host
• Avoiding the host's endocrine system

Insect Social Behavior

Subsocial

Phonetics and Phonology Basics

Phonetics Defined

Phonetics deals with the material or substance of sound. When we make a sound, it is made with a number, a tone, an intensity...

Physical Qualities of Sound

• Tone: High-intensity musical quality, related to articulatory energy.
• Quantity: Term related to time or duration.
• Resonance: Depends on the volume and sounding board, namely, the oral cavity.

Sounds originate in the speech apparatus. Syllables are also studied in phonetics because they are also sound units. Our sound system consists of 19 consonants and 5 vowels. There are more letters than phonemes because a phoneme may represent several letters.

Phonology Defined

Phonology deals with the study of the characteristics that are relevant in each sound...

Arteries and Superficial Veins of the Skull and Face

Neck Origin:

• **Arteries:** Common carotid, internal and external carotid.
• **Veins:** Internal and external jugular vein.

Jugular Vein Origin:

• Retromandibular vein (posterior to the jaw)
• Posterior auricular vein (behind the ear)
• Occipital vein (in the occipital region)
• Emissary vein (by the occipital region)
• Parietal emissary vein (parietal and occipital region)
• Nasofrontal vein (frontal nose and region)
• Dorsal nasal vein
• Zygomaticotemporal vein
• Angular vein (eye)
• Zygomaticofacial vein
• Infraorbital vein

Carotid Artery Origin:

• Posterior auricular artery
• Occipital artery
• Anterior auricular artery
• Superficial temporal artery
• Zygomatico-orbital artery
• Supraorbital artery
• Supratrochlear artery
• Dorsal nasal artery
• Zygomaticotemporal

Chromosomal Mutations

Chromosomal mutations translate into two types of abnormalities, visible by light microscopy: numerical and structural.

Numerical Alterations of Chromosomes

There are two main types:

• Euploidies: Numerical alterations affecting the entire genome. Individuals may have two, three, or four sets of similar chromosomes (monoploidy, triploidy, and tetraploidy, respectively).
• Aneuploidy: Affects only one pair of chromosomes, while the rest remain the same. Individuals are described as monosomic, trisomic, or tetrasomic, depending on the number of copies of the affected chromosome.

Structural Alterations of Chromosomes

• Deletions: Loss of a chromosome fragment, which can be interstitial (within the chromosome arm) or terminal (at the

Microbial Resistance Levels

Understanding the varying levels of microbial resistance is crucial for effective control strategies.

Categories of Microbial Resistance

• Highest Resistance: Prions and bacterial endospores.
• Moderate Resistance: Protozoan cysts, some fungal spores, and some non-enveloped viruses.
• Least Resistance: Bacterial vegetative cells, other fungal spores and hyphae, enveloped viruses, yeast, and trophozoites.

Terminology of Microbial Control

Precise terminology is essential when discussing methods for controlling microbial growth and survival.

Sterilization

The process of destroying all forms of microbial life, including endospores, on an object or in a material.

Absolute Sterilization

Sterilization is an absolute process; there are no...

Population Dynamics

Expanding Populations

In expanding populations, there is a high birth rate. The growth of these populations follows an exponential model.

Stable Populations

In stable populations, the number of individuals stabilizes after passing a phase of exponential growth. This occurs because factors limit population growth, such as competition between individuals for space and food, or pressure from predators. This growth limit imposed by the ecosystem is called the carrying capacity (K). In this case, the model that represents the stable population is a logistic or sigmoidal function.

Declining Populations

In declining populations, the number of older individuals predominates. The decline may be due to a low birth rate or a decrease...